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The International 
Correspondence Schools, 



SCRANTON, PA. 




Instruction Paper. 



SUBJECT: 



PEDAGOGICS OF HISTORY. 



204 



NOTICE. — The Student must, in accordance with his agreement, 
treat this Paper as confidential. 



Entered according to the Act of Congress, in the year 189?, by The Collieey 

Engineee Company, in the office of the Librarian of Congress, 

at Washington. 



2807 



Pedagogics of History. 



INTEODUCTIOX. 



GENERAL REMARKS. 

1 . Forms of Written Thong-ht. — Extended composition 
has been divided into four kinds : Desniption, Xarration, Exposi- 
tion, Arginiieiit. Of course, there are many other varieties, but 
these four are the only forms that are usually found in text- 
hooks on history. To understand the reason why it is so dif- 
ficult to tind a good working manual on the su])ject of history 
and what qualities should characterize such a manual, it will 
be necessar}' to consider briefly these four kinds of composition. 

2. Dei>;criptiou. — Description may 1)6 of pcrso))s or of 

tlii II ;/■•(. A description of anything should })rcsent an orderly 
account of the qualities that l)elong to the object described. If 
a description be in terms that are commonly used, it is ordinary 
or popular ; if it introduces the technical terms cmplo\'ed in 
some particular science, it is a scientific description. 

3. Xarrative. — Narrative l^ears the same relation to acts 
and events that description does to persons and things. A narra- 
tive, as well as a description, may be either minute or cursory — it 
may descend to the smallest particulars, or it may give only the 
most conspicuous and striking facts in a series of happenings. 

The items that make up a narrative should follow, first, tlie 
order of time. It will appear, later, that in this requirement con- 
sists the principal difficulty in historical writing. In the nature 
of things, events that together make up a complex whole suc- 
ceed one another in time, and an account of them is more vivid 
and more easily remembered if, in relating them, the order 
of their occurrence is observed. Indeed, the most strikins; 



PEDAGOGICS OF HISTORY. 



excellence in a sentence, a paragraph, or a sustained account of 
any matter, is this observance of chronological order in the 
arrangement of its elements. In this respect, more perhaps 
than in any other, consists the difference between the Avork of 
our best Avriters and that of inferior writers. 

In addition to this, a narrative should observe, second, the 
order of logical sequence or relative imporiance. In ever}^ narrative 
Avill be found many passages in which the element of time does 
not enter. Thus, the explanation of motives, of the purpose, 
results, or consequences of acts or events, of surrounding or 
accompauA'ing circumstances — these and many other matters 
are of this nature. An excellent illustration of Avhat is meant 
by logical sequence in a narrative, is found in the paragraphs 
introductory to the "Chimes," by Charles Dickens. Edgar A. 
Poe's prose Avorks furnish some of the best examples of logical 
arrangement of particulars that can be found in literature. Let 
the student try the experiment of rearranging the sentences or 
the paragraphs of that author, and he Avill feel the force of what 
is here stated. 

4. Exposition. — Exposition is neither more nor less than 
explanation. Like all explanation, it should be clear ; it should 
contain nothing intended to arouse emotion, but should be 
addressed to the intellect alone. As is the case Avith narrative 
and description, it should, in the arrangement of its matter, 
obserA^e the order of time, if time is an element, and, Avhere the 
element of time does not enter, of logical sequence. 

A definition is the simplest form of exposition. An expla- 
nation of an example in mathematics, an account of the action 
of a drug, or an explanation of a chemical reaction are examples 
of exposition. In writing a history of the United States, the 
author Avould find it necessary to suspend his narrative in order 
to explain our relations Avith England, the mutual feeling 
betAveen the countries, and many other matters neither narrative 
nor descriptiA^e. 

5. Arg-iiiiient- — It is no part of the Avork of a historian to 
introduce argument into his Avriting. He should content him- 
self Avith the presentation of facts and events ; and, accordingly, 



PEDAGOGICS OF HISTORY, 



it is very unusual to lind in history anything in the nature of 
distinctly expressed argument. Occasionally, indeed, we tind 
exposition colored more or less by attempts to convince the 
reader of the correctness of some view held by the author. 
Everything of this kind, however, is very much out of place in 
a history. Other things being equal, the excellence of a work 
on history increases with its imi)artiality — the absence of any 
expression of the author's opinion — the absence of argument 
and of matter intended to a]»])i';d to the emotions of the reader. 

6. History Consists of the First Tliree of These 
Forms of Composition. — That liistory should consist almost, 
if not entirely, of dcscrijifion, narrative, and exposition in varying 
proportions will be evident to the student. Anything else should 
be in the nature of quotation for purposes of illustration. It 
must not l>e assumed that these three varieties of composition 
are always, or even often, found separate. They are combined 
in all proi)ortions, and it is often difficult to determine Avhich 
predominates in a given paragraph, section, or chapter. 

In order to render intelligible the narrative of some event, 
say a battle, a description of the battle-field, its surroundings, 
and the roads leading to it ; or an exposition of some principle 
of military science, or of the advantages of some particular 
formation of the attacked or the attacking forces ; or some 
explanation of how the armies came to meet at that particular 
time and place — any one or all of these may be necessary. 

It is clear, therefore, that written history is made up of 
description, exposition, and explanation, in A'arying proportions, 
and that in all these, chronological order should l>e followed 
when time is an element. Wlien considerations of time do not 
dominate the arrangement of historical matter, as is generally 
the case in explanation and exposition, then the laws of cause 
and effect — of logical sequence — should determine the succes- 
sion of parts. Historical arrangement in the nature of climax 
is peculiarly effective. Gibbon, Macaulay, and many others 
among the writers of history have realized in this fact one of 
the principal charms of this species of composition. 

The writer may l:»e i)ermitted to observe, at this point, that 



6 PEDAGOGICS OF HISTORY. 

interest is added to a lesson in histoi\y, and the operation of the 
law of association is aided, b}^ having the pupils examine the 
text for the purpose of determining to which class of composi- 
tion the several paragraphs l)elong. This is not to divert atten- 
tion from the subject matter considered as history-, l:)ut to 
illuminate, and add to the interest of, the text. 

T. Uniliiieal and Miiltilineal Writing. — Professor 
Bain, in speaking of the different kinds of comiDosition, employs 
the Avords unilinenl, hiliaeal. and multilincal. These words con- 
tain the Latin word limnn, flax, thread, and ver}^ happily 
characterize the varieties of description, explanation, exposition, 
and argument. 

If one were required to describe any simple object, or to write 
a narrative of the doings of any person during an entire day, 
either of these would be an example of unilincal composition. 
The subject is not complicated 1;>y any side issues. There are 
no threads on either side of the main thread of the narrative or 
the description that are necessary to the completeness. No 
special literary art or skill is requisite in this kind of composi- 
tion — onl}^ the ability to tell a "plain unvarnished tale." 

History, however, is not tinilineal but midtilineal. Numerous 
threads must be taken up, carried into, and incorporated 
with, the principal thread ; and this must be done in such 
manner as to give unity to the whole, and preserve its interest 
and intelligibilit3\ This, it is easy to see, is a very difficult 
task. The sequence of events with respect to time cannot be 
observed, for, after tracing the main thread of the narrative 
through a certain period, the writer is compelled to go back 
again and again, and follow the minor threads to the point 
where he broke off. An unavoidable consequence is tbat the 
reader is confused b}' the multitude of extrinsic incidents 
making up the complete story, the effect upon his mind is 
weakened, and he is quickly wearied. 

The multilineal treatment may be likened to a river with its 
tributaries, or to a tree with its innumerable hrancbes, branch- 
lets, and twigs. Every one has noticed the fact tliat a tree with 
an axial trunk, like the pine or the poplar, is much more 



PEDAGOGICS OF HISTORY 



pleasing to the eye than one with a solrent trunk, and that, when 
a tree is covered with fohage, hiding its I)ranches and making it 
a unit to tlie eye, its beauty as a part of tlie landscape is much 
enhanced. It is a general principle, indeed, tliat simplicity and 
symmetry are two elements indisi)ensal)le to the l:)eautiful. 
This is in accordance with the well known Theor}^ of Pleasure 
and Pain, that a sense of l)affled effort on the part of the mind 
to comprehend is painful, and that the reverse is pleasurable. 
Order, simplicity, logical sequence, and symmetry aft'ord us 
pleasure ; while complexity, involvement, and discord hinder 
and perplex the action of the mind and create an eft'ect that is 
more or less disi^leasing or painful. 

The fact that historical works are necessarily mullilincal 
constitutes the chief obstacle to unity, and explains why the 
world has furnished so few great historians. Some one has 
remarked that a satisfactory history of the Jesuits has ne^'er 
been written, and perhaps never can l)e written, the reason 
being that the (Jrder has l:>een involved and active in the 
politics, and has influenced the history, of ever}- country in 
Europe. A history of this organization wouM therefore be 
painfully multilineal. 

8. Unsatisfactory Textbooks on History. — From the 
considerations stated above, it is easil}' seen that to write an 
interesting textbook on history is a difhcult matter, and it is, 
in fact, a task that has rarely l:>een accomplished. Many a work 
of fiction, while vividly conceived and ably written, has failed 
on account of the introduction of too many characters. AAdien 
Henry Ward Beecher was writing Ids novel "Norwood" as a 
serial for the New York Ledger, some one asked him how he 
meant to dispose of the many people that he had l^rought into 
the work. He is said to have replied that he would have them 
killed in a railroad accident. The novel was wonderfully well 
written, but no one hears of it now, and this is chiefly owing to 
its highly multilineal character. How different is the case with 
the story of Roljinson Crusoe. Perhaps no single fact has con- 
tributed so much to make Defoe's story an innnortal classic as 
its irnilinealitij. The attention is constantlv centered on the 



PEDAGOGICS OF HISTORY. 



hero, and even when Friday appears on the scene, there is still 
but one thread in the narrative. The newcomer falls into the 
same relation in the narrative as the goats and the parrot sus- 
tain to Crusoe. Everything is subordinated to the movements, 
the hopes, the fears, and the plans of Crusoe. Bunyan's 
"Pilgrim's Progress" loses much of its interest when the 
attention of the reader has to be divided between Christian and 
his wife. The story ceases to be unilineal and becomes bilineal. 
The rare art of weaving into a single fabric, elements that seem 
unrelated and incongruous, must characterize the writer of a 
good textbook on history. 

As a consequence of the difficulties mentioned above, our 
textbooks on history lack unity and interest, and afford but 
little help to the pupil or the teacher. It follows, of course, 
that 

9. CJiildren Dislike tlie Study of History. — It is 

a fact well known among educators that students of history 
rarely like the subject. They often delight in the study of 
grammar, of geography, of mathematics, of language, or of 
science, but, generally, their feeling about the subject of history 
is, " I hate it. " Occasionally, but not often, a class is found 
of which the contrary is true. This suggests the question of 
ivhy. Is there indeed something in the subject itself that 
should cause it to be, both to teacher and pupil, a source of 
weariness and disgust? We think not. Certainly interest and 
pleasure ought to be found in the story of what men and nations 
have done and suffered, of how the slow march of progress has 
been accomplished, and of Avhat the world's great activities 
have been. Without hesitation, one might assume that no 
subject of study could be of greater human interest, or furnish 
a more effective stimulus to hopes of high endeavor. But, as 
taught in our schools, history fails, with some rare exceptions, 
either to inspire the ambition of its students, or even to interest 
them. 

10. A General Pi'lnelple In Teaching-. — As has been 
remarked, Ave occasionally find a teacher able to arouse in a 
class the greatest interest and enthusiasm in the study of 



PEDAGOGICS OF HISTORY. 9 

history. Another teacher, after greater effort, finds the subject 
wearisome to himself and hateful to his pupils. The same 
thing happens with other subjects. The writer has seen entire 
classes of_ students extraordinarily interested in geometry, so 
much so indeed, that they were disposed to neglect every other 
study, and he has known the opposite condition of things. 
Such facts have led to the recognition l^y educators of the 
principle, — 

Any subject that is ivell taught is interestinfi to the student. 

It follows, therefore, that when pupils dislike an}- given 
study, the teacher is responsible. It is not much in extenuation 
to urge that textl^ooks are faulty, for teachers of real aliility rely 
little ujion them. They themselves are the textbooks — living 
textljooks, instinct witli enthusiasm and interest — a hundred- 
fold more instructive than books supplied l)y the pul)lishers. 
In fact, our best teachers are, in many subjects, more hindered 
than helped l:»y textl:)Ooks. It is the contact of mind with 
mind that is in the best sense eft'ective — not the contact of mind 
with ' ' cold type. ' ' 

11. History Diflacult to Teacli Well. — It is not easy 
to achieve success in teaching any subject, and this is especially 
true of the history of the United States. Apart from want of 
skill and exj^erience in the teacher, there are several other 
causes that contribute to failure. The principal of these are 
the want of unity in the subject itself, arising from its multi- 
lineal character, and the faultiness in textbooks. As has 
alread}^ been stated, for many hundreds of years, it has l)een 
thought by writers of history that "the king is everything 
and the people are of no account." Hence, during all this 
time, history has l)een a record only of l)attles and the move- 
ments of armies, the intrigues of courts, and the rise and fall of 
kings. The social and political, the commercial and industrial 
history of the nations ruled by these kings, the interplay of 
forces affecting the general weal, and the progress and effect of 
science and invention, are regarded as of no importance. Our 
histories have told us nothing of the national life at large — its 



10 PEDAGOGICS OF HISTORY. 

busy activities, its changing opinions, with their causes and 
results ; nothing of the nation's industrial and commercial devel- 
opment, and the means l)y which it was effected ; nothing of the 
ethical forces operating to create national epochs ; only the 
story of its generals, and the wars in Avhich they figured, of 
the triumphs and failures of its politicians and its rulers that 
come and go. 

The matters relating to the daily life and activities of a 
nation make up the soul of history, so to speak ; but what we 
really find in our textbooks is only the body — the mere skeleton 
of history. The true logic — the correct interpretation — of 
human happenings is discoverable only from these omitted 
matters. And, hence, the teacher's opportunity to interest and 
to instruct truly and rightly is lost, unless he has informed 
himself by seeking for the whole truth where alone it may be 
found — in the records of the growth and progress of the nation 
itself. 

12. The Purpose in tlie Study of History. — In the 

study of any subject, there is, or should be, some definite 
advantage in view. Some gain in discipline of mind or of 
body, or some j)i'actical usefulness, or both, should be clearly 
proposed as the result of the study ; otherwise history should 
be neglected. In general terms, every subject that we study 
should aid us in living more completely — physically, mentally, 
morally, socially, estheticalh'. When rightly taught, apart 
from its value for purposes of mental discipline, history 
primarily enables a man to better understand his duties as a 
citizen. It instructs him in the causes that have led to the 
progress and the decadence of nations, and in the l")est means 
of assuring the one and of avoiding the other. Not in this 
respect alone is history of value. It contributes to man's 
efficiency in every walk of life by extending his horizon, con- 
firming his mental grasp, and liberalizing his opinions. To 
know the consequences of individual and national action, to be 
able with greater certainty to infer the laws that govern success 
and failure among men and nations, to gain the inspiration 
and stimulus that come from knowing the story of human 



PEDAGOGICS OF HISTORY. 11 

achievement and progress — these and many more are the endvS 
we should have in the study of history. The highest patriotism 
requires that this sul)jeet should be retained in the courses of 
stud}' of all our schools, puMic and private. 

More especially is it important for a student to have a 
thorough knowledge of the history of his own country — noth- 
ing so develops and strengthens his sentiment of patriotism, 
and makes liim willing to fight, and if need be, die, for national 
liberty and integrity ; nothing aids so much to make him not 
merely a good citizey, ready to obey the laws and to discharge 
in fullest measure his obligations to the State, but also to make 
him understand the nature of those laws, and of his political 
duties and obligations. 

Surely, then, it is a most important sulgect, and is worthy of 
the teacher's higliest ambition to guide his pupils wisely and 
skilfully in its ac(iuirement. 

13. Tlie Teaelier Must Kno^v His Subject Tlior- 
oxig-lily. — As has been stated elsewhere, if a teacher is to lie 
successful in teaching any subject, he must not only 1)e skilful 
and resourceful in his profession, l)ut he must l)e i)erfeetly 
familiar with that subject, both in itself and also in its relations 
and applications. He should know it so well that no textbook 
need be in his hand during a recitation. It is not meant l)y 
this that he should have committed the lesson to memory so as 
to know exactly when and to what extent a pupil reciting has 
departed from the language of the l^ook. The teacher that does 
this will inevitabl}^ bring his class to hate the subject, whether 
it be history or some other stud}-. The teacher should have in 
his mind an outline of the topics of the textbook, if one is used 
by the pupils, and he should be able, l)esides, to lead the pujiil 
to incorporate the lesson with the whole of which it is, or should 
be, a part. In other words, history should be taught in such a 
manner as will exemplify not only logical, luit also chronological 
sequence. Each event is at first an effect or a result of some 
cause, and later l>ecomes itself a cause. There should l:»e no 
broken links in the chain of events that make up history — no 
broken threads should interrupt the operation of the law of 



12 PEDAGOGICS OF HISTORY. 

association. Without this law, history becomes only a series 
of unrelated, isolated incidents. 

For a teacher to gain this broader view — this knowledge of 
the philosophy and the logic of history — time, extensive read- 
ing, reflection, and a keen sense of logical connection are 
required. He must be willing to devote his best powers to the 
subject. 

But no one can teach with success the history of any country 
if he knows that alone. He must know the history of other 
countries. A perfect knowledge of the English language implies 
a large measure of familiarity with all languages, for they are 
all more or less related to it and to one another. In like man- 
ner, the history of each nation of the world has been more or 
less influenced and modified by each other nation. The history 
of the Roman Empire, for example, cannot be adequatel}'' told 
unless there is related, at the same time, a portion, at least, of 
the story of all the peoples that came under her domination, 
and by whom her history was modified. It follows, therefore, 
that the teacher of history, if he wishes to be successful, must 
read history extensively. The more comprehensive his reading 
the Avider will his views become, and the more will they gain in 
unity. This leads naturally to the question of the teacher's 
historical reading. 

14. How a Teacliei* Should Regulate His Reading-. — 

There is not more than one reader in a score that wisely utilizes 
his time. This arises from several causes. Chief among these 
is the fact that only a very small percentage of the works on 
any subject are really valuable or entirely reliable. Many of 
the works on history are in large measure fiction, or they are 
mere garbled compilations of the writings of some other author. 
The teacher, therefore, that would make the greatest possible 
progress in informing himself on any subject, should seek the 
advice of some competent authority as to the books to be read, 
and the order in which they should be taken up. In the case 
of history, this order should begin wdth one or more reliable 
general compendiums that shall enable him to fix in his mind 
the principal landmarks of the subject and their relations as 



PEDAGOGICS OF HISTORY. 13 

parts of a whole. AMien this has l:)een well done, he is prepared 
to fill ill, more or less completely, the details. To do this, he 
must ^'"read in a strak/ht line.'" The reason for this is apparent. 
If the several stejDS in an argunient, say an algebraic or a 
geometrical demonstration, l)e disarranged, the force and unity 
of the whole are destroyed. So, in reading history. The 
maximum result for the reader is produced only when his 
order of reading accords with the sequence in logical relation, or 
in time, of the events narrated. 

As his reading proceeds, he should make written analyses of 
each book separately, and, later, he should unite these into a 
single coherent outline. These synopses should be placed 
where he may see them often and become familiar with them. 
The writer remembers calling, many 3^ears ago, upon a friend 
engaged in the study of law. At that particular time Blackstone 
was the author with whose works the student was engaged. 
The Avails of the room were nearly covered with papers 
pinned together and showing an orderly outline of the contents 
of the book as far as it had been studied. That friend has since 
made himself noted for the exactness of his legal learning. In 
a similar manner the student of any subject shcnild take pre- 
cautions against anything escaping him that is worth preserv- 
ing. Such outlines are perhaps more useful if preserved in a 
notebook. Other notebooks, properly labeled, should contain 
quotations that for any reason are deemed to be of special 
value. 

15. Prose Quotations and Poetrv. — The teacher should 
provide himself also with a collection of poems illustrating 
noted historical events, and with celelirated descriptions of 
places, battles, or other matters, for nothing else is so effective 
in causing the past and the distant to seem like the vivid 
present. Macaulay's " Lays of Ancient Rome " ; Victor Hugo's 
description of the Battle of A\'aterloo ; excerpts from Carlyle's 
" French Revolution " or from Dicken's " Tale of Two Cities " 
illustrating the horrors of the most dreadful period in French 
history; Lincoln's Address at Gettysburg; "The Isles of 
Greece," and many other passages from Byron relating to Greek 
and Roman history — these and similar quotations can be used 



14 PEDAGOGICS OF HISTORY. 

with much effect by the teacher of histor}'. The object of all 
such auxiliaries is to produce vivid impressious ; and upon 
such impressions and upon repetition of effects depends the 
retentiveness of memory. With fine natural aptitudes, such a 
course of self-training in his art will, in a few years, place the 
teacher in the rank of experts, and cause him to be sought 
after as one of those whom the world delights to honor. 

16. Time Given in Oiii* Scliools to tlie Study of 
History. — Another obstacle in the way of the teacher of his- 
tory is the shortness of time given to it in our courses of study. 
In many of our schools no attention whatever is accorded to 
the study of general history, and one tern:i, oi", at the most, two 
terms devoted to the history of the United States, are deemed 
sufficient. One consecjuence of this is that textbooks are 
modeled to suit this slight treatment. Some years ago a series 
of books was prepared entitled, " Fourteen Weeks in Chemistry," 
"Fourteen Weeks in Physics," "Fourteen AVeeks in United 
States History," etc. The sale of these books was enormous. 
Parents, school officers, and even teachers fondly imagined that 
by using them great strides could be made in acquiring an 
education. The educated teacher, however, knows that, if a 
study is begun and ended in so brief a period, it can have no 
value worth mention. If a subject is to furnish a mental 
discipline that will change the student from what he was to 
something stronger and better, it must exert its influence for a 
longer period than fourteen weeks. The same may be said of 
the studies that we pursue for the sake of their practical 
usefulness. 

The "Story of Scheherezade " consumed 1,001 nights, and 
surely the story of the human race should, in the telhng, require 
more than a brief period twice or three times a week during 
70 school days. Textbooks Avritten for the purpose of being 
completed in such a short time can be nothing better than life- 
less and tleshless skeletons, and the "I hate history" of those 
that study them is inevitable. If history is to have any place 
at all in our schools, let it be a place worthy of the importance 
and usefulness of the subject. 



PEDAGOGICS OF HISTORY. 15 



Almost all the colleges in this country ignore the subject. It 
is true that some of these higher institutions are beginning to 
recognize that history well taught and thoroughly mastered is 
an indispensable element in the education, not alone of the man 
of lil)eral culture, but also of the enlightened citizen and the 
man of affairs. 

PREPARATIOX FOR TEACHING HISTORY. 

IXTRODUCTIOX. 
17. 3Ietliod Xecessary in Study and Teaeliing". — 

No Avork is ever well done that is not carefully ])lanned. The 
engineer that intends to Ijuild a ship, a great bridge, or a fort 
determines the excellence of the ultimate result by the character 
of his plans. An orator may possi1)ly be eloquent without pre- 
paring his address beforehand, l)Ut if his thoughts and argument 
are carefully considered and arranged Ijefore delivery, their 
effect upon his audiences, and their influence upon being read 
afterward, will be much greater. Similarly, a teacher whose 
aim is to do his work in the most thorough manner jjossible, 
nuist make special preparation for each lesson. In other words, 
he must be a student as long as he is a teacher. Ever}^ lesson 
should lie as carefully })lanned as a sermon, a poem, or a maga- 
zine article. There is scarcely a subject that is not capable of 
scientific arrangement. The same is true of the parts — the 
lessons — into which the matter in a textbook is separated for 
the })Urpose of study and recitation. In the case of history this 
is true in a marked degree. There is a logic of events, a phi- 
losophy of causation and sequence in the occurrences that make 
up the life of an individual or the history of a people. The 
rules that should regulate the telling of each, in whole or in part, 
are the same. The best teacher of history is the one that most 
accurately discovers and interprets the purpose, the causes, and 
the consequences of historical action. This, too, must be done 
not merely b}^ himself ; he must lead his pupils to reflection 
and inferences similar to his own. By being himself a student 
and an investigator, he must iml>ue his students with the same 
spirit of research. 



16 PEDAGOGICS OF HISTORY 

18. Tlie Teacliei" Must Create among- His Piix)ils a 
Taste for Historical and Biograpliical Reading-. — Per- 
haps no teacher has ever succeeded in arousing in a class of 
jiupils a genuine liking and enthusiasm for history by confining 
their attention to a single textbook on the subject. A work, to 
be suitable for classroom use, must be meager in details. This 
is necessarily so on account of the vastness of the subject. 
Such a textbook can, in the nature of the case, be only the 
merest skeleton account of events. In itself, therefore, it is 
certain to be dry and tiresome. If, hoAvever, the student's 
reading is so directed as to amplify and give life and reality to 
its briefly stated contents, it matters little how concisely they 
are given. The items in the book become mere counters, each 
significant of a large and interesting area that the student has 
explored. Just as the name of a city, a river, a mountain, is 
but a name, a mere combination of letters, to one that has never 
seen them for himself, but becomes rich in significance and 
fertile in suggestion to him that has seen them, so is it with 
these mere catchwords of history. 

How greatly is interest in the histor}^ of Germany or France 
enhanced by reading historical tales such as were written by 
the woman whose pen-name was Luise Miihlbach. Dumas' 
novels have contributed more, perhaps, than anything else to 
make French history intelligible and a source of pleasure. 
Carlyle's wonderful ■" French Revolution," Dickens' " Tale of 
Two Cities," and similar works should be read before any 
of the histories of France are attempted. An admirable 
preparation for the liistor}^ of the United States is found in the 
historical novels of Sims and the biographies written by James 
Parton, detailing the lives of noted Americans. 

A teacher, therefore, must ascertain just what there is in 
historical, poetical, biographical, and fictional literature that 
will increase the vividness of effect jDroduced upon the minds of 
his pupils at any given time in their progress. If he does this 
part of his work well,, he will give an impetus to their love of 
historical reading that will last throughout his life. 

This part of the duty of a teacher of history is of compara- 
tively easy accomplishment, if his work is done in a cit}' or in a 



PEDAGOGICS OF HISTORY. 17 

large town ; but if he teaches in a country district or in a small 
village, he is confronted by a serious obstacle. This is owing 
to the usual absence, from such places, of libraries large enough 
to meet the requirements of successful history teaching. 

19. Coneei'iiiiig tlie fStipplylng- of Books of Refer- 
ence in C'oimtry Districts. — To arrange a scheme for dis- 
tributing 1)ooks for general reading in small villages and in 
country districts, and for having them properly cared for and 
preserved from loss, is a difficult problem. About 35 years 
ago an attempt to do this was made in the State of Ohio. 
Whetlier or not the ])lan is still in operation there the writer 
does not know. The Ixioks, strongly bound in sheep, were 
furnished by the State, and upon their covers was stamped the 
statement that tliev were public })ro]»erty. The custody of a 
sufficient number to supply a given neighborhood was made the 
duty of the secretary or the chairman of each local school lx)ard. 
It devolved ui)on him to keep the records necessary to their 
proper care and prevention from loss. After a time, when his 
sujjply of books had been read by all the people in the district 
desiring to read them, he would exchange his stock for that in 
an adjoining district. Owing to the carelessness of some of 
these custodians of the books, many were lost or quickly 
destroyed. Only a state having a large fund f(n' educational 
purp(ises can keep up such a method of supplying reading 
matter for the general pultlic. 

In the densely populated countries of Western Europe, large 
pul»lic liliraries are numerous and of eas}' access. It is no 
wonder, therefore, that the Germans have been able to surpass 
us in the quality of their historical teaching. They are the 
creators of the ''Laboratory Method," which some educators 
have tried, with no marked success thus far, to introduce into 
the schools of tlie United States. There can V)e no doubt that 
their great success with this method is largely owing to the 
density of their })opulation and the consequent easy access to 
l)0(>ks for research and general reading. 

The man that can devise a good plan for furnishing extensive 
and varied reading matter, not only for the children in country 



18 PEDAGOGICS OF HISTORY. 



schools, but also for the general rural population, will be doing 
much for the progress of our country. This is a matter worthy 
of the most thoughtful attention of the statesman and the edu- 
cator, and it will become easier of accomplishment as our 
country is developed and the density of population increases. 

20. Ho^v History Liessoiis are Usually Learned. — 

We have all seen the pupils of mediocre teachers prepare history 
lessons, and to any one knowing how it should be done, the 
operation has a pathos in it. The pupil, with his book open at 
the proper place, reads aloud or in a busy whisper, a sentence 
or a paragraph, over and over, again and again. This reading is 
always accompanied by a busy movement of the lips, an intro- 
spective rolling of the eyes, nodding of the head to emphasize 
important words, and by other bodily movements. Many of 
the words are not understood, but that is a matter of slight con- 
sequence to the student, and it never occurs to him that the aid 
of a dictionary would be valuable. In the highest probability, 
he does not own one, and very probably the school he attends 
has no such article among its property. The principal thing, as 
he understands it, is to fix the exact vjords of the author in 
his memory — the author's thought and his arrangement of topics 
are matters of secondary consideration. If he can get the 
language into his memory verbatim et literatim so as to reproduce 
it before his teacher without varying from the text, he has ' ' no 
other thought beside." 

Now, if words express no thought, every one knows how 
difficult it is to remember them in a fixed order. 

It is related of a certain actor having a remarkable memory, 
that he was boasting on one occasion of his aloility to learn 
quickly and remember anything he chose. A friend suggested 
that perhaps he could compose something the actor would find 
difficult, and submitted a series of words having no relation in 
meaning. Of course, the actor, after long study, was compelled 
to admit his inability to memorize the composition. 

Our children that study history in which occur words or 
thoughts they do not understand, are handicapped in much the 
same way. And if, by sheer force of perseverance, they do 



PEDAGOGICS OF HISTORY. 19 

succeed in memorizing such matter, it is forgotten Just as soon 
as the recitation, for which alone it was learned, is past. 
Such lessons do not strengthen the memory ; they prostitute 
and ruin it. The hal)it of forgetting is learned much more 
easily than is that of remembering. Moreover, history or any 
other subject, learned in this way. has absolutely no value for 
either practical or disciplinary use. It is l)y methods such 
as these, that our scliools produce so many cases of "arrested 
development." 

21. IIo^v History is Usually Recited. — There are two 
principal methods of "conducting recitations" that are thor- 
oughly and unmitigatedly l)ad. Each of these has its slight 
moditications. These methods are : 

I. The Verbathii Recitation. — Let us suii[)Ose that the class 
is ready to recite. The work begins l»y the teacher's asking, 
" Who can tell me where the lesson today begins and where it 
ends?" He opens the manual at the place indicated by the 
pupils, most of whom are not al)le to answer his (juestion. 
This preliminary question indicates clearly that the teacher 
himself is not prepared for the recitation. If he were not 
provided with a textbook, he would be utterly unalde to "hear 
the recitation." The pupils, too. must liave their books under 
their desks in order to get the cue when they are al)OUt to be 
called to recite. 

"John, you may begin with Lincoln's Administration," says 
the teacher. John recites. "Very good, John, except that you 
said institution for iii(ni</n_rafion, and you left out thron(/h Bolti- 
more.'^ While John recited, the teacher followed the text with 
his index finger. John is pleased and shows it, for the teacher 
said, "Very good!" That miscalled word and the omitted 
phrase did not count either with John, the class, or the teacher. 

' ' Next ; tell us about . ' ' And so the pitiful exhibition goes 

on. John, of course, doesn't know the inferences that may be 
made from this farce ; nor does his teacher, for if he did, 
some better way would l)e found. John and his parents think 
themselves fortunate in having a teacher so exacting, one that 
compels the "scholars'' to study their lessons. The teacher 



20 PEDAGOGICS OF HISTORY. 



takes occasion to congratulate the j)arents on having so studi- 
ous a son — and he really means it. 

II. TJie Quesfion-and- Answer Recitation. — For this species of 
recitation, less preparation on the part of the pupil is required 
than is necessary with the method described above. He must 
learn the dates, and the meaning of the text sufficiently to be 
able to identify the teacher's questions with the several portions 
of the text. If the teacher is more than usually obliging — or 
stupid — he will ask what the lawyers call "leading" questions. 
In such case, the pupil does not need to learn even the dates. 
He will be able to "guess " the ansAver with sufficient accuracy. 

Perhaps the textbook is one of those of peculiar pedagogical 
excellence that has C[uestions at the l)ottom of the page. By 
experience, the pupil knows that he will be asked those ques- 
tions and no others, and only those are gone over. Not one 
little wavelet of original thought, or wonder, or curiosity, in 
the teacher or in his pupils, is started by these questions. 

In all the foregoing, there is no exaggeration. The writer has 
before him several late textbooks Avith lists of questions on each 
chapter. Many of them require "3^es" or "no" for an answer, 
or they inquire for proper names. It may be asked why intelli- 
gent authors Avill write, and modern publishers — sensible and 
hard-headed — will print, such books. The ansAver is that books 
are made to sell— to meet a ' ' long- felt need. ' ' As long as county 
superintendents, and even those of cities, Avill go into schools and 
ask pupils to "give the rule for long division," or Avill pick up 
a history and read off such questions as are found printed there, 
and imagine they are examining or testing the teacher's Avork 
by the pupils' ability to ansAver, so long will books of this kind 
be found in our schools. But the time, let us hope, is not far 
aAvay Avhen this Avill be changed. 

The method of question and ansAver Avill be more fully 
treated under a later topic. 

22. Prepax'ing- liessons From a Textbook. — Con- 
siderable has already been said, not only of the teacher's 
general equipment for historical teaching, but also of his 
preparation for particular lessons. It is the purjDose under 



PEDAGOGICS OF HISTORY. 21 

this topic to treat of the Avay in which pupils should be 
trained to prepare lessons from a textbook. 

When a lesson is assigned for study it should be read over in 
the presence of the teacher very much as is done in the case of 
an ordinary reading lesson. The purposes are mainly two in 
this exercise — to clear away verlial difficulties, and to luring out 
the exact meaning. 

Xow every subject has, or should have, a logical arrangement 
of parts. Every paragraph should hixxe some leading idea or 
proposition. In each case, this idea or proposition may gener- 
ally be denoted l)y a single word or phrase. A constant 
inquiry should be made as to the principal subject treated in 
each paragraph, and the best and briefest expression for it. As 
these are developed one by one, they may be written upon the 
blackboard, and after their relative importance as topics, sub- 
topics, etc., have been determined, they should be copied by 
the pupils. These outlines serve the double purpose of empha- 
sizing the meaning and of aiding the pupil in memorizing the 
lesson in the order of topics. The lesson should not l>e 
regarded as properly learned until this skeleton or outline, 
each item in its proper place and relation, as well as the matter 
to fill up the outline, are firmly fixed in the memory. On the 
other hand, the teacher is not ready to meet his class for 
recitation, until he is perfectly familiar with the plan of the 
lesson and the treatment of each subdivision of it. Then 
both teacher and pupils may discard the textl»ook and each is 
free to take part, not only in recitation, but in a rational and 
an orderly discussion of it. If, in addition, the teacher is 
fortified by abundant general information covering the lesson, 
and is, besides, master of the logical considerations involved, 
the recitation, when it comes, may be made a rare treat to 
everybody concerned. 

In case the class in question has access to l)Ooks relating to 
the matters treated in the lesson, the teacher should assign to one 
or more of its members the task of preparing to tell the rest of 
the pupils more particularly about some person or event 
mentioned. Of course, the teacher should l>e able to direct the 
pupils to the l)Ooks needed for reference. Suppose, for 



22 PEDAGOGICS OF HISTORY. 

example, the lesson were about the treason of Benedict Arnold 
and the execution of John Andre. One pupil may be asked to 
prepare himself to give orally or in writing a sketch of the life 
of Arnold, and another that of Andre. The former pupil 
should be referred to Sparks' " Life of Benedict Arnold " in his 
"Library of American Biography," Vol. Ill, and the latter to 
Sargent's "Life and Career of Major John Andre," or to the 
"Atlantic Monthly" for December, 1860. 

These pupils, if they do their work well, Avhich, under proper 
management is likel}^ to be the case, will themselves be much 
profited, and will add greatly to the interest of the class in the 
lesson. Certain is it that, to the members of that class, the 
names of Arnold and Andre will thereafter be not mere names, 
but almost living and breathing personages. By this means, 
too, the memory is aided by the enlistment of the emotions. 
Pity for the fate of Andre, and respect for him, and horror and 
loathing for the treason of Arnold, will render it simply impos- 
sible for the class ever to forget that lesson. The writer may be 
permitted to add that no better subject for subsequent compo- 
sition work can be devised than these matters of special 
investigation. To use them for this purpose serves not only the 
object primarily intended, but also as a review of the histor}^ 
lesson. If a history lesson involves any cjuestion of geography, 
and nearl}' all ch), the i)upils should know that every one is 
expected to be in readiness to point out on a map the places where 
the events happened. Still better is it to require that a map shall 
be rapidly sketched upon a blackboard, and the places indicated 
Avith respect to other well known and important features. This 
map drawing must not be elaborate or consume much time. It 
need not be accurate ; a reasonable degreee of approximation is 
all that is required. Anything more converts the history exer- 
cise into a geography lesson. One or two minutes should suffice 
in which to do all the map drawing required. It should be added 
that, as a rule, a mere local map, as of a battle, a settlement, or a 
fort is not enough for the purpose. The boundary lines of the 
state or country in which the locality is included, should be 
rapidly sketched. If two or more states are concerned, as is 
the case when armies are marching from one point to another, 



PEDAGOGICS (3F HISTORY. 23 



the lioundaries sliould be indicated, and the hne of march 
should be shown. 

2ft. Relics and Mementoes. — Another important aid in 
the study of history, and one that has been much insisted upon, 
is that of historical relics and mementoes. It is surprising how 
many such objects are distributed in any given neighborhood — 
an old tlag of the Civil War, or even of the Revolution, Aveapons 
of antique pattern that were used against the Indians or in our 
wars with Great Britain, arrowheads, Indian pottery, historic 
letters, ancient documents, household heirlooms, and many 
other objects that have come down to us from those distant 
times. In almost every case, the owners of these things are 
glad to put them at the temporary disposal of the teacher. 
The following quotation from Mary Sheldon Barnes will illus- 
trate the intense interest that cliildren take in these historical 
relics : 

" In response to a request for flags for a special occasion, a little boy of 
eight years bi'ought me a flag tliat his fatlier had carried through the 
Civil War. He recounted the battles in chronological order, told me a 
little of the geography, and related an incident that I knew to be true. 
He seemed much interested in the flag, and very proud of tlie fact that 
his father had held it when one of the bullet holes was made in it. The 
class of forty boys and girls, seven to nine years old, asked questions 
eagerly about the flag. ' Where did it come from ? ' ' What makes it 
so dirty?' 'What made tlie lioles in it?' 'Were they real bullets 
out of a gun?' 'What did they want to shoot at the flag for?' 
' Do you think it was right to have a war?' One boy said afterwards, 
'Couldn't it tell a lot of stories, though!' The children seen:ied to 
feel still more interest after I had given tliem a brief account of it, and 
several lingered to see it more closely, and one wished to touch the 
old flag." 

The historic sense with respect to time is perha})S more 
strongly and detinitely developed by a study of such relics 
than by any other means. Every teacher of history should 
have in his school as large a collection as possible, and should, 
as thoroughly as possible, understand and know how to use it. 
The great museums of the world expend enormous sums 
annually in making additions to collections illustrating every 
department of art and science, and these must be studied by 



24 PEDAGOGICS OF HISTORY. 

scientific writers, if they would make the state of things they 
depict, true to life. Nothing is more certain than that history 
can neither be adequately learned nor taught without some 
assistance other than textbooks. The teacher, therefore, that 
means to win a place in the first rank of his profession must 
be willing to give the time and thought, and if need be, incur 
the expense, necessary to supply himself and his pupils with 
every available appliance. 

24. Historical Use of Poems and Ballads. — All 

authorities are agreed that of the various aids in teaching history 
none is more valuable than can be obtained from the use of 
poems and ballads. " History describes, poetry paints," says 
W. C. Collar, Head Master of Roxbury Latin School. Con- 
tinuing, he remarks, "There is nothing like the magic charm, 
whether of sublimity or pathos, that poetry lends to historical 
events, persons, and places. * ^« >i« * >i< At the distance of 
forty years I recall the emotion, the tears, with Avhich I read 
in our country school reading book a poem that I have never 
seen since, entitled ' Jugurtha in Prison,' beginning, 
' Well, is the rack prepared, the pincers heated? ' 
"I knew nothing of Jugurtha, neither when he lived nor in 
what part of the world, nor what he had done tliat he was to 
be starved to death in prison. ^ >i< >i< >i< * * With what a swell 
of patriotic pride, too, did I as a boy recite, 

' Departed spirits of the mighty dead, 
Ye that at Marathon and Leuctra bled.' 

" Marathon and Leuctra signified nothing to me. I had not 
the remotest idea who were the mighty dead that had fallen 
there, but I felt as if it would have been a joy to have shed my 
blood with them. ' ' 

If the development and cultivation of patriotism is one of 
the important objects of the study of history, and that it is 
there can be no question, the teacher has in the patriotic 
poems, ballads, and songs of his country a potent agency for 
this purpose. "Paul Revere' s Ride," and many others of 
Longfellow's poems, Drake's "American Flag," "The Star 
Spangled Banner," "Sheridan's Ride," "Barbara Fritchie," 



PEDAGOGICS OF HISTORY. 25 



"The Blue and the Gray," Scott's "Breathes There a Man 
with Soul So Dead," and innmneralde others are availal^le. 
No emotion of which children are capable is deeper, no senti- 
ment purer and finer, than those awakened by a poem descril^ing 
and idealizing heroic achievement or daring deeds. 

This sul:)ject has already been adverted to, and is resumed 
here only on account of its great importance to the teacher of 
history. 

25. Revle^vs. — Edgar A. Poe in his " Pliilosophy of Com- 
position" alludes to the value of the rcfniia as an element of 
beauty and force in poeti'v. The woi'd is derived from the French 
verb refraiiuhr^ to repeat. It is this repetition, reiteration, 
review, that is a primary condition of success in teaching any 
subject. No lesson ought ever to be assigned that does not 
include a review of the preceding lesson, and as soon as any con- 
siderable part of a textbook has been gone over, a "back review" 
should be begun at the lirst of the book. And for a fourth 
time the manual should be covered by a rapid general review. 

This is in accordance with Mr. Bain's contention that the 
early work in school should be of limited extent but thoroughly 
mastered. He insists that little worth si)eaking of can l)e done 
until the mind lias material to work u])on. Comparisons 
cannot be made until there are things to l)e comjjared, classi- 
fications are impossible until there are in the mind matters 
that belong in classes, and inferences implied by conditions 
from wdiich they may be deduced. 

Many reviews are doubtless more or less wearisome to the 
teacher and monotonous to the pupils, but much of this may 
be avoided, and interest and pleasure secured, by new and more 
comprehensive generalizations and classifications. A teacher's 
skill may be very accurately gauged by the measure of persist- 
ence he can induce in a class in struggling long and patiently 
with a difficulty that is to be mastered. 

At any rate, wdiether the teacher can make reviews interesting 
or not, the early history Avork, in order to be valuable, must be 
thorough. Without thoroughness, there is no proper and 
certain Ijasis on which to erect later an enduring superstructure. 



26 PEDAGOGICS OF HISTORY. 

Moreover, the habit of i:)atient persistence until master}^ is 
gained is of incomparable value in all subsecjuent work. And 
the opposite is true ; if the pupil is permitted to be careless and 
imperfect in his lessons, it is a habit that is likely never to be 
overcome. 

26. Histoi'lcal Recreations. — Every one that went to 
school three or four decades ago will remember the delight with 
which the announcement of a "spelling match" was received. 
Even yet a spelling match is almost as popular in the West as 
is baseball. This method has been extended to geography. In 
much the same way as in spelling, the pupils are tested in geo- 
graphical knowledge. The writer has seen many competitive 
tests of this same kind in history. Several of our school text- 
books contain extensive lists of questions intended to be used 
for this purpose. The}'' may be given either as a miscellaneous 
review of an entire class, when any one may answei* that can, 
or as is done in spelling, sides may be chosen and their com- 
parative knowledge ascertained. 

The following questions for this purpose are copied for the 
sake of illustration : 

1. In what battle was " Betty Stark" the watchword? 

2. What battles have resulted in the destruction or surrender of an 
entire army? 

3. What general rushed into battle without orders and won it? 

4. What trees are celebrated in our history? 

5. What three ex-Presidents died on the 4th of July? 

6. Give the coincidences in the lives of Webster, Clay, and Calhoun. 

7. AVhat celebrated philosopher, when a boy, in order to buy books, 
went without meat ? 

The teacher must remember that these diversions must not 
be substituted for serious and genuine work in history. They 
are useful for creating an interest in, and for l^reaking the mon- 
otony of, the regular lessons ; in short, they are used in the 
same way and for the same purpose as the spelling matches of 
years ago. 

The pleasure they give and the interest they arouse should 
suggest a general principle of success in teaching : Do not for 
long pursue the same method — seek variety, freshness, originality. 



PEDAGOGICS OF HISTORY. 27 

METHODOLOGY. 



DESCRIPTION OF THE VARIOUS METHODS OF 
TEACHIXG HISTORY. 

27. Auy 3Ietliod Used Exclusively Becomes 3Ioiiot- 
onous. — There is a strong Ininian instinct for variety. We 
weary of the people that tell us over and over again the same 
stories, of the musicians whose music is always written in one 
key, and of the poets that always compose in the same meter. 
This repugnance to monotony is found also in children. Like 
their elders, they yearn for novelty. If required to sing at 
school the same song every morning, they soon become tired of 
it, however beautiful it may be. Hence, the teacher that wishes 
to make school a place of constant enjoyment to his pupils, 
must keep out of the ruts ; he must be fertile in devices, and 
able ti) re})eat as often as may be necessary, without becoming 
monotonous. If he is content to assign lessons and to hear 
them recited always in accordance with a tixed method of pro- 
cedure, he will soon have the mortification of hearing that his 
pupils like neither him nor the school, of seeing an increase in 
their jiercentage of absenteeism, and of having their number 
depleted by many leaving school altogether. The fact is, there 
is no place in the world wbere a child can experience so much 
happiness as in a scliool properly conducted. The teacher of 
such a school must not only be original, resourceful, scholarlv, 
sympathetic, genial, and kindly, but he must also be familiar 
with the best and most ai)proved methods. 

28. Many Metliods of Procedure in History. — Every 
school sultject is susceptible of various nieth(^ds of presentation, 
and the effectiveness of each method depends upon many con- 
ditions, most of which have been mentioned under preceding 
topics. One of these conditions is that the teacher must 
thoroughly know the different methods and devices and be able 
to decide under wliat circumstances each shouM l)e employed. 

Tbe writer, therefore, will proceed to explain the several plans 



28 PEDAGOGICS OF HISTORY. 

that are employed in teaching history, and to make such com- 
ments upon them as may seem necessary. In doing this, he 
will describe with special minuteness the method that has 
j)roved so successful in Germany — the Laboratory method, 
which is being introduced more and more widely in the schools 
of this country. 

29. The Cateclietical Metliocl. — The oldest and most 
natural method of conducting a recitation is the Catechetical. 
In this the teacher asks Cjuestions and the pupil answers them, 
if he can. This was a favorite method with Socrates, whose 
practice was to feign ignorance of some matter supposed 
to be thoroughly understood b}^ his antagonist in argument. 
Socrates would ask innumerable questions t-liat the person 
questioned would answer in the unguarded way that comes 
from the conviction of having perfect knowledge of a subject ; 
and presently the wily old philosopher would confront his oppo- 
nent with a series of answers that were inconsistent with one 
another and ask him to reconcile them. From this practice of 
Socrates, there came into the Greek language a noun derived 
from the verl) eirein, to speak. This word eironeia means a dis- 
sembling, the asking of questions that involve a snare. From 
the same source came the noun eiron, a dissembler, one that 
affects ignorance and says less than he thinks ; finally we have 
in our own language the word irony. Every teacher has heard of 
the Socratic method, which is nearly synonymous with the Cate- 
chetical method ; but perhaps no other person ever employed the 
method of questioning so skilfully as did that wise old teacher. 

The catechisms that counted for so much in the religious 
teaching of a half century ago were so called because they were 
made up of questions with answers. The first notions of what 
a textbook on history, geography, and many other subjects 
should be, required that it should take the catechetical form : 
and even yet we find such books in our schools. jMany 
teachers continue to follow the plan of question and answer in 
conducting recitations. ' ' Who discovered America ? " " Colum- 
bus. " "In what year ? " "In 1492. ' ' Often, too, the ques- 
tion of the teacher is so constructed that it may be answered Ijy 



PEDAGOGICS OF HISTORY. 29 

1/cs or no. Of course, all tliis is very bad ; so nnich so, that the 
catechetical method has for a long time been practically 
abandoned in the making of textbooks, and to a degree in the 
recitations of pupils. 

And yet the art of skilful questioning is indispensable to the 
highest success in teaching. It is a practice among teachers to 
explain points tliat are not understood. " Sit erect and be atten- 
tive while I explain this difficulty," the teacher says, and 
immediately the class assumes an attitude of respectful atten- 
tion, with ears for the most part hermetically sealed. But if 
the teacher clears away the difficulty by a series of questions in 
proper sequence, or better still, if he delegates to some bright 
pupil the task of asking the (juestions necessary' to lead a slow 
pupil to an understanding of the suljject, the attention will be 
real and not feigned. 

A skilful lawyer cares less for the direct testimony of a 
witness than for what can l)e elicited l)y cross-examination. 
Indeed, the eminence of a lawyer is dejiendent more upon his 
expertness in the art of (piestioning than upon anything else. 
In like manner, no teacher deficient in this art can attain to the 
highest excellence in his profession. To use the Catechetical 
method with effect in teaching retjuires that the teacher shall 
himself thoroughly understand the subject under consideration, 
and that he shall know the condition of the pupil's mind with 
respect to points not entirely comprehended. The teacher 
must have, too, a sense of logical order that will enable him to 
construct a chain of questions in perfect sequence, leading the 
pu})il from those points that lie knows to those that lie has 
"failed to grasjj. 

Many books have been written about the art of (questioning, 
but this is something that cannot be learned from rules. The 
conditions of expertness in this art are indicated al:)Ove — a per- 
fect knowledge of the subject, of the end to be attained in any 
given case, and a strong sense of logical se(|uence. To these 
may be added such skill in the use of language as will enable 
the teacher to frame (juestions that are l)rief, suggestive, to the 
point, and without ambiguity. 

One of the most effective methods of makiny; a recitation 



30 PEDAGOGICS OF HISTORY. 

interesting is to require one pupil to aslc a series of questions 
intended to lead another pupil to the comprehension of some 
point not thoroughly mastered, and to constitute the rest of the 
class as critics of the questions and their arrangement. The 
writer has witnessed recitations, the most exciting and interest- 
ing that could be conceived, conducted in this way, and during 
them the teacher rarely spoke. It would l)e difficult to exag- 
gerate the value of skilful questioning as an auxiliary in the 
management of a recitation. Success in this matter may not 
attend the first efforts of a teacher, but it will come later as a 
reward of experiment, patience, and reflection. 

30. The Menioriter Metliocl of Stiicly and Recitation. 

In this method the student commits to memory the exact 
text of the author, and in recitation gives it as he learned it. 
The objections to this are so numerous and so obvious that our 
best teachers have long ago abandoned it. Even yet, however, 
one does not need to go far to find this plan in use. In our 
large cities, where it might be expected that a practice so 
ruinous and antiquated Avould not l)e followed, it is still in 
vogue, and this will doubtless continue to be the case until all 
teachers are required to prepare for their work l^y professional 
training. It has been argued in favor of the Memoriter method 
that it cultivates the memory. But this argument is fallacious. 
When poetry or striking passages of prose are memorized, and 
are remembered on account of their beauty, the effect is to train 
the memory ; but it is well known that lessons in history are 
very soon forgotten. However carefully they are learned, the}' 
soon run into confusion in the mind and are forgotten. In this 
method, the words are everything and the thought nothing. It 
follows, thei'efore, that when the words are forgotten, nothing 
remains except a vague sense of half-defined images. Only 
such matters as are indispensable in our daily employment, and 
are for that reason of frequent recurrence, are jiermanentlv fixed 
in our minds. The actor remembers his part in a play by 
virtue of repetition, but he reads the newsj^apers and speedily 
forgets what he has read. A poem full of beauty, emotion, and 
true to nature, is easily remembered, but a magazine article or 



PEDAGOGICS OF HISTORY. 31 

an item in a newspaper makes Init a slight impression upon the 
mind. The memory is ver}' much hke a servant. If discipline 
is relaxed, the servant becomes neglisient and careless. If, on 
the contrary, he is held strictly to his responsihilities, he 
becomes more and more exact and painstaking. In like man- 
ner, if the memory is rigorously requij'ed to re^iroduce upon 
demand whatever has been confided to it, and. in case of failure, 
is punished Viy the imposition of additional tasks, it will in time 
liecome faithful and relialjle. 

It must not be understood that the writer is opposed to 
verbatim memorizing, for the contrary is true. It is only. with 
respect to the matter that is required to be committed to memory 
that objection is here made. The ideas in a historical text- 
l:)Ook, Ijut not the language, should be learned so carefully as 
never to be forgotten. The teacher, on the day l^efore a lesson 
is to 1)6 recited, should go over it with the class. The ol)jects in 
view should be to clear away any obscurity in respect to the 
meaning, and to get an outline or analysis of the lesson. If it 
can be done, there should he found for each paragrajdi a single 
word that will recall its contents. This outline should be 
thoroughly fixed in the memory, and later, by way of review, it 
should l)e incorporated with the outlines of ju'eceding lessons, 
so as to form one continuous whole. During recitations, these 
outlines singly, and in order collectively, should frequently Ijc 
called for, so that, when the textltook has been finished, its 
entire contents may Ije given by points from memory. 

Above all, do not permit })upiis to give the exact text. One 
of the Ijest exercises in acquiring and confirming a good stock of 
words is in the requirement that pupils shall give the author's 
thought in words of their own choosing. Ideas are easily 
remembered, but mere words are inevital:)ly forgotten. 

31. Tlie Topical Metliod. — -The term topical refers Itoth 
to the division of the matter in a textl)Ook, and also to one 
of the best methods of giving that suljject matter in recitation. 
Nearly all school l)Ooks of the present time have their contents 
broken up, and tlie topics indicated liy conspicuous side heads. 
This facilitates the work, not only of the i»upil, l»ut also 



32 PEDAGOGICS OF HISTORY. 

of the teacher. Of course the topics should be in close logical 
connection, and upon this depends greatly the superiority 
of one manual over another. The pupil should have these 
topics in his mind in their order of occurrence, and when called 
upon to recite, should be required to proceed ^yithout help from 
the teacher. Very frequently, two or more pupils may be desig- 
nated to recite in turn the portions that make up a topic, if it is 
long and is divisible into parts. As has been stated above, the 
author's language should in no case be given by the pupil. An 
outline of the daj^'s lesson in conjunction with the preceding 
lesson should be given by the first pupil that recites. Many 
teachers cause such an outline or analysis to be given both at 
the beginning and at the end of the lesson. The practice is a 
good one, and is worthy of general adoption. One very great 
advantage of this topical method is that a sense of logical 
sequence is developed among pupils. More than anything else, 
it is this art of properly dividing a subject into related parts 
that gives so great a charm to the writings of Macaulaj^ He 
was perhaps the greatest master of paragrcvphing that ever wrote 
in any language. Every paragraph is complete in itself and 
perfect ; and the transition from one to another is graceful, and 
the sequence natural and obvious. 

It must not be understood that the Topical method prevents 
the employment at the same time of the Catechetical or 
the Memoriter method. If a teacher desires to analyze motives, 
or causes, or consequences ; in short, if he teaches not history 
merely, but the philosophy of history, he must ask questions,. 
This may be done as occasion arises during the progress of the 
recitation, or at its close. Which plan is the better must be 
determined in any given case by the teacher himself. But 
while it is sometimes necessary and advantageous to use the 
method of questioning, the Memoriter method is invariably and 
hopelessly bad. When the questions of the teacher lead quickly 
and naturally to free and earnest discussion on the part of the 
pupils, the interest and profit will be very great. When the 
teacher of history can skilfully combine all the various methods 
and devices for awakening interest and enthusiasm among 
the pupils, we shall no longer hear it said that pupils hate the 



PEDAGOGICS OF HISTORY. 33 



sul)ject. Xo other suhjrct is quite so fascinating as this, if it l)e 
well taught, but to teach it so as to secure the best results is 
very ditficult. To prepare and deliver effectively a sermon or 
an oration is perhai)s an easier task. 

32. Extension of Meaning- of tlie Term Tojiicfd. — 

Although the word topical is usually employed in the sense 
explained under the preceding head, tliere is another meaning 
sometimes attached to it. This can best be illustrated liy a 
quotation from a brief outline l)y Professor Tyler of the histor- 
ical work pursued under his direction at Cornell University. 

"Perhaps it maj- be a pecuUarity in ray work as a teacher of History 
that I am here permitted to give my whole attention to American 
history. At anj' rate, this fact enables nie to organize the work of 
American history so as to covei', more perfectly than I could otherwise 
do, the whole field, from the preliistoric times of this continent down to 
the present, with a minuteness of attention varying, of course, as the 
importance of the particular topic varies. I confess that I adi)pt for 
American history' the principle which Professor Seeley, of Cambridge, is 
fond of applying to English history, namely, that while history should 
be thoroughly scientific in its method, its object should be i:)ractical. 
To this extent, I believe in history with a tendency. INIy interest in our 
own past is chiefly derived from my interest in our own present and 
future ; and I teach American historj-, not so much to make historians, 
as to make citizens and good leaders for the 8tate and Nation. From 
this point of view, I decide upon the selection of Jilstorlccd topics for 
special stud;/. At present I shuuld describe them as the following : 

"The Native Races, especially the Mound P)uilders and the North 
American Indians. 

"The Alleged Pi'e-Columbian Discoveries. 

"The Origin and Enforcement of England's Claim to North America, 
as against Competing European Nations. 

"The Motives and Methods of English Colony Planting in America 
in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries. 

"The Development of Ideas and Institutions in the American Colo- 
nies, with Particular Reference to Religion, Education, Industry, and 
Civil Freedom. 

"The Grounds of Intercolonial Isolation and of Intercolonial Fellow- 
ship. 

"The History of the Formation of the National Constitution. 

"The Origin and Growth of Political Parties under the Constitution. 

"The History of Slavery as a Factor in American Politics, Culmina- 
ting in the Civil War of 18()1-G5. 



34 PEDAGOGICS OF HISTORY. 

" In all these subjects, I try to generate and preserve in myself and 
my pupils such an anxiety for the truth, that we shall prefer it even to 
national traditions or the idolatries of party." 

33. ReiiiarlvS on tlie Foregoiiiii-. — The student will 
perceive that in the sense illustrated above, by the Topical 
method is meant no more than an arranoement in chronological 
sequence of the principal items making up the complete his- 
tory of a particular period. With this meaning, the method 
determines the arrangement of the contents of every scientific 
treatise on history. When the sulodivisions are made down 
to minute episodes, the Topical method may be utilized in 
studying and reciting lessons from day to day, as has already 
been explained. 

^Mien in the succession of general topics the order of time 
is not followed, we have the Laboratory method, which is 
employed in the lycea and the universities of German}^, and in 
some of the colleges of the United States. Original researches 
by this latter method should be dominated by the Topical 
method, l)oth in generals and in particulars. 

34. The ILahoratory Metliocl. — In the teaching of chem- 
istry, physics, mineralogy, metallurgy, liotany, or any other of 
the natural sciences, the need of a well ecjuipped laboratory is 
conceded. These laboratories, when complete, are furnished 
with all necessary scientific instruments, books of reference, 
specimens, and everything that is required in the most exhaust- 
ive original investigations and experiments. Something of the 
kind has Ijeen proposed in the study of history. Of course, no 
instrumental aids are required, but the plan contemplates that 
the student shall have access to all the original authorities, docu- 
ments, reports, panj}ihlets, etc., that are resorted to by an 
author engaged in compiling a historical work. It is clear, 
however, that the unaided search of an ordinary student would 
yield nothing of value. He must have the guidance of a text- 
book from which he may learn where to find the information 
that he needs. Such books have been made in this country, 
but they have not been used to any great extent. The plan pre- 
supposes an immense library accessible to the student. In this 



PEDAGOGICS OF HISTORY. 35 



countrv, even under such circumstances, the method is not a 
good one. In this busy age, we cannot give to any one subject 
the time necessary to make any such method successful. No 
one here desires to make a life-work of the study of history, as 
is done in (Termany, and in j)reparing to earn a livelihood, the 
most profound knowledge of this suljject would rarely have any 
considerable market value in the United States. In Germany 
much is made of the study of history, and there is a demand for 
the services of persons si)ecially trained to teach it. The Labora- 
tory method proceeds upon the assumption that no modern writer 
of history is to be believed, and that every statement must be 
verified by reference to original sources. This, of course, takes 
more time than, in justice to other subjects of study, can be 
granted. Unless the student makes a lif(> work of this sub- 
ject, the La1)oratory method is wholly imi)ractical)le as a plan 
for the classroom. In the (•om|)osition of a historical treatise, 
however, this is the only rational meth(^d of doing the work, 
and it is s[)ecial]y suited to the ])reparation of a dissertation on 
some i^articular liistorical tojiic, or controverted point. 

35. Historical Clubs. — In Germany especially, and to 
some extent in France, clubs for liistorical study are in vogue. 
They are commonly i)resided over l>y a professor or by some 
one designated for the purpose. He assigns to each member a 
topic upon which to ])repare a papei', and this, at a time speci- 
fied, the writer reads before the clul). Some one is chosen 
beforehand to criticise the contents of the pajx'r. In order 
tfiat the critic may be able to do his work thoroughly, he is 
l)ermitted to cxaininc tlie dissertation in advance. After the 
critic selected has been heard, other members follow. These 
criticisms in the German Ge!<eU8chafteii are unsparing, and a]3pear 
to be made without any regard for tht^ author's feelings. To an 
American the criticisms appear brutally blunt and severe, but 
they are accepted by the victim with an admirable philosophy 
and good nature. It is a valuable discipline, for nothing else 
so effectively enables one to avoid the folly of overestimating 
his own powers. 

Of course, it is not history alone that may be studied in this 



36 PEDAGOGICS OF HISTORY. 



wsij. In every civilized country, there are innumerable organi- 
zations for various purposes, but it is only in Germany since 
1830, and in France for about a quarter of a century, that his- 
tory has been systematicall}^ pursued by such societies. Much 
may be accomplished in this way, and the teacher in our 
public schools is better situated thati any one else to inaugurate 
and direct the work. The teacher is naturally expected to take 
the initiative in such matters, particularly because he has per- 
fect facilities for reaching parents and others whose cooperation 
are necessary. Indeed, the teacher's usefulness is not limited 
to his work in the classroom, at least it should not be. When 
it is remembered that man is naturally a gregarious animal, 
and lends himself gladly to the furtherance of any scheme 
involving association with his fellows, we can readily see how 
useful an intelligent teacher, having executive and organi-zing 
aptitudes, may be in a community. Such activity greatly 
helps the teacher in his proper work in the schoolroom. It 
causes him to be better known and appreciated b}^ the patrons 
of his school, and largely increases his influence. If such out- 
side usefulness Avere generall}" prepared for in the schools where 
our teachers are trained, and the methods of its successful 
realization were carefully considered and systematized, the 
remuneration and tenure of office of the profession would be 
speedily advanced. 

36. Interest in Historical Study may be Increased 
by Pviblic Librarians. — An admirable plan of creating among 
the reading public an interest in historical reading and study 
has been described by Mr. William E. Foster, the Librarian of 
the Providence Public Library. The object in view included 
not only historical reading, but also such geographical, political, 
economical, and other subjects as are suggested by current 
events. The method pursued was to post at the library, news- 
paper clippings referring to important matters, and then to give 
below the titles and library numbers of books in which could 
be found additional information relating to the subjects so 
posted. It was immediately found that the plan was an excel- 
lent one. Increasing numbers of visitors would stop to read 



PEDAGOGICS OF HISTORY. 37 

the clippings, ami, naturally, they Avonkl })r()cuie and read the 
l)ouks. Neighboring educational institutions were invited to 
send lists of sulijects in which their students were interested, 
and the volumes in which these subjects were treated were not 
only repcu'ted l)ack, l)Ut the lists Avere posted at the library. 
The work was at first done by hektograph, but it was S{)eedily 
necessary to resort to printing, and lists were finally sent to 
other cities. These lists were printed in the local newspapers 
whose readers would cut them out, take them along to the 
librar}' to guide in the selection of books, and preserve them for 
future reference. Mr. Foster says that the plan developed until, 
in response to numerous re(]uests, the more extended lists were 
printed in the "Liln-ary Journal" of New York, and that 
finally, in 1881, was l)egun the regular issue of the "Monthly 
Reference Lists." This latter periodical has attained a wide 
circulation in this country, and it has readers in Europe. He 
gives, as specimens of current topics, such as : 

" The Stability of the French Republic." 

" The German Empire." 

" European Interests in Egypt." 

" Indian Tribes in the United States." 

"The Unification of Italy." 

"The Closing Years of the Roman Republic." 

"The Plantagenets in England." 

"Tendencies of Local Self-Governinent in the United States." 

"Elements of Unity in Southeastern Europe." 

The foregoing is perhaps the nearest approach to the Labora- 
tory method of Germany that is practicable in this country. 
Its tendency is to render the reading l»y the public systematic 
and orderly, and to turn it more to those subjects that at the 
time are uppermost in the public mind. It is, moreover, a 
plan by which intelligient students can he useful to others. 
There are many newspaper editors that would be glad to print 
such lists of topics, whether supplied i)v librarians or by well 
informed general readers. \\\=' hear much of altruistic effort ; 
here is a field for persons disposed to exert themselves in 
behalf of a larger general intelligence. By these and similar 
means, the teacher may extend his functions beyond the 
classroom. 



38 PEDAGOOrCS OF HISTORY. 



37. The Ijectiire Method. — This method is much 
employed in the teaching of a great variety of subjects, par- 
ticularly ill colleges and universities, and in the higher technical 
institutions. This is more especially the case in the colleges 
and universities of Europe. In the United States, courses of 
lectures are very commonly arranged in nearly all of our large 
cities and towns during winter. In these courses, the subjects 
are usually popular rather than didactic ; for, if a lecture is 
intended to instruct, it is almost certain to be sparsely attended. 
The people that go to lectures expect to be entertained ; a fact 
indicating that the Lecture method in teaching history has, 
under ordinary conditions, very little value. Unless a lecturer 
thoroughly knows his subject, and has besides rare graces of 
delivery, he cannot hope to furnish his audience any material 
or lasting benefit. But there are circumstances under which 
this method may be employed Avith excellent results by the 
teacher of history. Some of these conditions are as follows : 

I. The lecturer mud he thoroughly master of his sabject. He 
must know the entire field covered by the lecture ; he must 
know it not merely as a detail of facts, it must lie in his mind 
as scientific organized knowledge. Its philosophy must be 
familiar to him. The laws of cause and effect, of sequence in 
time, and all the various interdependences must unite this 
knowledge into one logical structure. Some one says that his- 
tory is philosophy teaching by example. We can know only 
facts and their relations ; but a knowledge of facts alone, facts in 
isolation, is scarcely worthy of being called knowledge. Facts 
become important only when their relations are fully under- 
stood. The voyage of Columbus, considered merely as a voy- 
age, has no more interest than any other voyage across the 
Atlantic ; but when it is taken in connection with related 
events before and after, it becomes one of the most momentous 
occurrences in history. The battle between the Monitor and 
the Merrimac was a slight afl'air compared with the battle 
between the Chinese and the Japanese at the Yalu River, or 
the destruction of the Spanish fleet by Admiral Dewey in the 
harbor of Manila, or that of Admiral Cervera at Santiago de 
Cuba. But when that first meeting between iron vessels is 



PEDAGOGICS OF HISTORY. 39 

considered in regard not only to its influence in shaping 
events during our own war, but also as necessitating the 
remodeling of the navies of the world, its deep significance 
becomes apparent. The performance of the dynamite cruiser 
'"Vesuvius" at Santiago de Cuba, and the late developments 
in the matter of submarine navigation, will doubtless be the 
beginning of striking readjustments of the world's methods of 
Avarfare. Events are great, though not so much in themselves 
as in their relations. 

It follows, therefore, that to employ the Lecture method 
eft'ectively in teaching history, it is necessary for the lecturer to 
have mastered the philosophy of his subject, to have pondered 
deeply U])on the logic of events. His knowledge must be 
thorough and ])rofound, and it must V)e organized. He must 
be able to give in a sentence what may have cost him weeks 
of reading and reflection. 

II. He must not eater into (Jet(i{ls. If the lecturer introduces 
many particulars, it becomes impossilde for him to exhibit 
stro;igly any logical and connected whole. By the lecturer's 
matter and manner, his audience should be compelled to grasp 
and remember the general scheme of the lecture. This scheme 
should be so C()nceived and presented as to create an impulse on 
the part of the audienee to fin<l the details that will confirm and 
complete it. It should be a nucleus around which there shall 
he a continuous accumulation. 

III. The student slionhl he supplied iritJi <i, e/ood outline of the 
lecture. It is customary for students to take notes of lectures 
that they deem important. If original research with reference 
to the matters treated is contemplated, these are indispensalile. 
But the task of writing these notes diverts the attention from 
the main argument, and much of the eftect and unity is lost. 
The best method of meeting this requirement is for the lectvirer 
himself to supply a complete outline of the lecture. He avoids 
by this means the possil)i]ity of being misunderstood, and the 
later researches of the students are perfectly definite. If ref- 
erence is made in these notes to authorities where details may 
be found, the outline of the lecture 1)ecomes immensely more 
valuable. In anv case, the no'tes can be made the basis for 



40 PEDAGOGICS OF HISTORY. 

subsequent examination into the proficiency of the students. 
This is the method of procedure in our schools of law and 
medicine, where the teaching is largely done by means of 
lectures. 

38. Remarks on tlie Lecture Metliocl. — In teaching 
history by this method, great care is necessary that the subject 
and its treatment shall be adapted to the age and intelligence 
of the pupils. This is a matter of difhculty. It requires a 
thorough knowledge by the lecturer of the mental status of. the 
pupils, and besides, that he shall have the rather rare versatility 
that enables one to make his language, manner, and method suit 
an audience of children or of cultured adults. Tyndall possessed 
this power of adaptation to a wonderful degree. His Christmas 
lectures on Light and Electricity were listened to with rapt 
attention l^y audiences of more than 5,000 children, and in this 
country he lectured on the same subjects to immense audiences 
composed largely of educated people and specialists. The error 
into which a lecturer is most likely to fall will consist, there- 
fore, in making his subject too little philosojjhical, or too 
profoundly so. 

If a discussion of the lecture is made to follow, directed and 
supplemented by the lecturer himself, its effect is amplified and 
deepened, and erroneous impressions corrected. In Germany, 
this method, with various accompaniments and modifications, 
and in its most elaborate and philosophical form, is much 
employed in the Seminaria or "Training Schools," and in the 
"Practice Course" of the universities. But it is to be remem- 
bered that, in these departments, only comparatively small 
groups of advanced students are addressed, and that the lecture 
is intended only to suggest lines of subsequent original research 
by the students. 

It is extremely doubtful whether the most accomplished 
lecturer on history proper could make this method valuable 
below our high schools. Into these, however, and into our 
colleges, it has been introduced, and in many cases with marked 
success. But while this method is useful onl}" in the higher 
study of histor}^, there is a modification of it that may be 



PEDAGOGICS OF HISTORY. 41 



regarded as indispensable in the historical work in our lower 
schools. This, on account of its importance, shall be carefully 
explained in the next topic. 

39. Tlie Biog-rapliical Metliod. — Before history proper 
can be studied with any profit from textbooks, the historic 
sense must be developed ; and of all metliods for this purpose, 
the Biographical method is the best with beginners. By the 
historic sense is meant : 

I. A Demand of the Mind that Xarratires shall he Distingaished 
as True or as Mere M i/fh or Stonj. — To very young children 
a fairy story is as ap})arently true as the account of a real 
occurrence. The tales of the "Arabian Nights" are just as 
veracious to them as if the incidents occurred before their own 
eyes. Dickens strikingly exemplifies this in a beautiful sketch 
entitled "The Child's Story." 

'•They had plenty of the finest toys in the world, and the most 
astonishing pictiu'e books — all abont simitars and slippers and turbans, 
and dwarfs and giants, and genii and fairies, and bluebeards and bean- 
stalks, and riches and caverns and forests, and Valentines and Orsons ; 
and all new and all Irtw.''^ 

Indeed, it never occurs to children up to about eight years of 
age to inquire as to the truth of what they hear or read — 
everything is real, everything true. At this age, questions of 
probal)ility l)egin feeljly to suggest themselves, and the mind 
begins to file, but, with slight emi)hasis, its protests against 
incongruity. 

As the result of many tests made upon cliildren, it has been 
ascertained that by certain kinds of training tliis sense of historic 
truth ma}' be rapidly developed, and thus the child may be 
prepared for serious historical woik. It would be interesting to 
detail here some of the many tests that have revealed this 
psychological fact, but the limits assigned for this Instruction 
Paper will not permit it.. 

II. .4 Demand (if the Mind for tJic Time of Erents. — What 
some one has called the perspeetive of histori/ is absent in young 
children. The writers of fairy stories have never deemed it 
necessary to be more specific in tliis respect than to l)egin with 



42 PEDAGOGICS OF HISTORY. 

"Once upon a time," or with "Once upon a time, long, long 
ago," or with similar vague phrases. To young children, the 
stories of Columbus and Washington are equally remote, and 
neither dates farther back or forward than " King Arthur's 
Round Table," or the myth of " Jason and the Golden Fleece." 
No such inquiry as " When did it all happen?" is heard from 
these youthful auditors until after about the age of eight years 
has been passed. After this time, the demand for the time of 
events is made with increasing frequenc}'. Still later, comes 
the mental recjuirement for a definite sequence in regard to time 
of the several items that make u\) a single event ; and still 
later, for the relation in time of several independent events. 
Until this last instinct has become definite, the historic sense 
with respect to time is incomplete. And it is long after the 
pupil desires to know the sec^uence of time in the events of a 
narrative that he becomes importunate al)Out what was at the 
same time going on in the rest of the world. 

III. A Mental Demand for the Cause and the Consequence of 
Historic Action. — Earl}^ in the life of children we often hear the 
inquiry, "Why did you do tbat?" This is one of the first 
manifestations of an instinct to investigate the causes of action. 
Such investigations are at first confined to the child's actual 
surroundings, and they generalh^ have reference only to actions 
that affect his own physical or mental well-being, or his j^er- 
sonal rights. It is much later when he carries these inquiries 
outside into the matters of history. In these early years, his 
instinct deals only with the causes, not the consequences, of 
personal actions. Long afterwards the tendency asserts itself 
to trace action to the effect it produces. 

It is related that a lawyer once advertised for an office boy. 
On the day indicated, a large number of applicants appeared. 
The lawyer said, " Boys, before I decide which one of you I shall 
select, I wish to tell you a story." He then very vividly, as 
some lawyers can, related an incident that may be outlined as 
follows : 

"A farmer one night heard a disturbance near his barn among 
his poultry — with his gun, he went to the barn — an owl sat on 
the roof — the farmer shot at it — the Avad from his aam lodged 



PEDAGOGICS OF HISTORY. 43 



among the dry shingles and fired the l)arn — it Ijurned rapidly — 
his horses and cows were in the harn — he attempted to save 
them — his life was lost in the effort — his wife, in trying to rescue 
her husband, Avas burned to death — the barn, the farmer, his 
wife, and all the stock were consumed." 

The boys listened with susi)ended Ijreath, and a deep sigh at 
the close told the story of the intensity of their interest and 
sympathy. Present!}' one of them asked, " Mister, did he hit 
the owl?" "You are the boy I want," answered the lawyer. 
In this is an illustration of the fact that the instinct to trace 
events to their legitimate outcome has a market value. Doul;)t- 
less the student is familiar with the myth concerning Epimetheus 
and his brother Prometheus. Their names, denoting after- 
thought and forethought, are indicative of their mental qualities. 
Most people have Epimetheus, and very few, Pr(nnetheus, for 
their prototypes. 

IV. An Iiiipidsc to Criticise Historic Artion, and to Make Infer- 
ences from It. — Criticisms of historic events generalh" have refer- 
ence to the motives of action, and are based upon the assump- 
tion that actions have an etJiiced quality — rightness or wrongness ; 
or they concern the expediency of the means employed to 
accomplish certain ends. 

40. Etliical Criticism. — To illustrate what is meant l\y 
ethical criticism, the incident may be cited of the slaughter, l)y 
order of Napoleon, of nearly 1,500 Turkish prisoners taken at the 
storming of Jaffa. His biographers and critics are still dispu- 
ting whether the exigencies of the situation and the laws of war 
warranted the act. And the i)eople of our own country are liy 
no means unanimous on the question whether General Grant 
was right to "fight it out on this line if it takes all summer." 
He had to choose ))etween a more dilator}' method with a 
probable saving of life, and the method that he adopted, that of 
ending the war quickly Ijy sheer force of superior numl;)ers, and 
without considering the lives it might cost. Much is to be said 
on each side of such questions, and it is a part of the teacher's 
work to develop in his pupils a critical instinct that looks at 
historical events from all sides. 



U PEDAGOGICS OF HISTORY. 

To a child, the ethical quality in human deeds is quite over- 
shadowed by heroic action and daring. The doings of the 
pirates of the Spanish seas create no sentiment of revolting 
and horror ; they are only fearless freebooters whose legitimate 
prey is the world. The horrors of battle are quite lost in the 
glorious exhilaration as he reads or hears of the rush of 
infantry, the thunder-like roll of artillery, and the magnificent 
charges of cavalry. There is no room in his young heart for 
pity of the vanquished, he cannot hear the groans of the 
wounded, or see the white upturned faces of the dead. Very 
slow is the growth of the ethical sense. Even "children of 
larger growth" have a very rudimentary notion of the right 
and the wrong in human action. 

There is gradually develoj^ed in every mind a disposition to 
predict or infer what is to happen next in any succession of 
events ; or to conjecture the occurrences that have preceded a 
given state of things. When Robinson Crusoe saw the strange 
footprint in the sand, the remains of a fire, and the bones that 
he recognized as human, his first mental impulse was to seek an 
explanation of these phenomena. His earliest conclusion was 
that his island had human inhabitants other than himself. This 
he investigated and disproved, and thus established the alterna- 
tive fact that the island had been visited by cannibals. So far he 
had been making inferences as to what had already happened. 
Now he begins to deal with the future. "They will return. 
What has happened is likely to happen again." Such is his 
thought, and from that time he is in daily expectation of 
their return. 

41. Test of tlie PoAver of Inference. — To test the power 
of inference in young students of history, Mar}^ Sheldon Barnes 
gives the following as a typical exercise : 

"If you were shipwi'ecked on an island in the middle of the sea, and 
[if] you found in one corner of the island an old house of logs, and part 
of an old wooden boat with broken arrows in the bottom of it, what 
would these things tell you?" 

Many children of different ages and degrees of intelligence 
were required to give their views in writing. Their inferences 
as to what had happened on the island were carefully collated, 



PEDAGOGICS OF HISTORY. 45 



and some very instructive conclusions were reached regarding 
the development of the faculty of critical, legitimate, and 
historical inference at different school ages. The student will 
find her little book, "Studies in Historical ]Methu<l." to con- 
tain much suggestive and valual)le help. 

42. Method of Developing- tlie Historic Sense. — : 

Having set forth pretty fully what is meant by the historic sense, 
we shall now explain what is generally conceded to be the 
best method of developing it. 

Nowhere in the world has history l)een so successfully taught 
as in Germany. The subject is handled there in such a way as 
to make the student an intelligent and a persistent reader of 
history during his entire life. His training is such, too, that 
his subsequent reading is methodical and systematic. He is 
not taught to "hate history," Init it is to him an inspiration 
and a discipline. With him the period of historical study 
preceding the university Avork covers about nine years — from 
the age of nine or ten to about nineteen. It is during the first 
five years that the Biographical method is employed. This 
method we now proceed to describe. 

The first two years of historical work are taken up with 
stories told by the teacher al^out the great men and the great 
events of the world. In this work no dates are given, and 
times are indicated only approximately. The central purpose 
is to awaken and develop the historic sense, and to this end, 
the impressions must be the most vivid possible. Only teachers 
specially trained are employed in this work. Of course no 
textbooks or books of any kind are used. It is mucli the 
same as the entertaining of children ]>y telling them stories in 
the nursery. These stories occupy a half hour each, twice a 
week, and, naturally, they are eagerly anticipated l)v the }>upils. 
They serve to carry the children from their own narrow sphere 
into the great world of heroic effort and achievement l)eyond, 
and to awaken vague amlntions and hopes concerning their own 
future. Every one knows the intense interest and delight that 
children find in a story well told, and no effect upon the mind 
endures as does that made durim>- hiohly wrought emotion. 



46 PEDAGOGICS OF HISTORY. 

Leonidas, "lion-like," becomes, to the child so taught, a type of 
heroic and unselfish devotion to country forevermore. Salamis 
—the heart of the child Avill l_")eat faster hereafter when he hears 
the name. Themistocles, Aristides, Demosthenes, Lycurgus, 
Socrates, Alexander — what a mine of biographical wealth the 
old Greek race furnishes for the delectation of the student, and 
the ideals and aspirations of men are higher and nobler for the 
lives of such men. 

In these tales, the teacher naturally begins with his own 
country', and proceeds in an orderly way Avith the epoch-making 
men and events of other countries. Gradually, as the horizon 
of the pupil widens, he comes to feel the need of greater definite- 
ness as to time and place, cause and effect, ethical fitness, and 
means and motives. Geography lends its aid. " Here was 
born this great man ; here he did his work ; here he died and 
was buried." "On the banks of this river the battle was 
fought ; here, through a mountain pass the defeated army 
attenjpted to esca]3e and Avas destroyed or captured." Little 
by little, pity for the vanquished, and the subsequent fate of 
those AA^hose future Avas ruined by the defeat, begins to take its 
place in the child's heart, and Cjuestions of right and wrong — 
the ethical sense — are A^aguely outlined in his consciousness. 

And, thus, sloAvly indeed, but surely, is built up a mental 
substructure upon Avhich shall rest later a symmetrical knoAvl- 
edge of history. 

At the end of two 3^ears, the same ground is gone over again, 
but in a different way. The Biographical method is still pur- 
sued, but this time the object is to link events into a harmonious 
outline. The elements of time and place, of cause and effect, 
of means and end, and of ethical fitness are to be employed 
in giving unity of effect. The Battle of Salamis has already 
been told ; noAv the AA'hole story of Xerxes' iuA^asion of Greece, 
Avith its causes and consequences, is gone over. The pupil is 
furnished Avith a pamphlet containing names and dates, not for 
study, but as simply suggestive aids to the memory. This 
pamphlet is prepared by the teacher, and, in his Avork, the order 
of its contents is closely followed. It is useful, too, in the oral 
and Avritten exercises on the part of the pupils, Avho are required 



PEDAGOGICS OF HISTORY. 



to impress upon their memories what has been taught. The law 
of association is utilized l;)y every possil)le means. Brief, but 
clear explanations of the manners and customs that prevailed in 
those far-away historic times are given by the teacher ; forms 
of government are descril)ed, not at length and formally. l»ut in 
sharp, well defined outline. The learning of dates under this 
regime is not the slavish work usually made of it, but each date 
takes its place in the memory easily, and stands with res[)ect to 
other dates as definitely as a star in a constellation. The char- 
acters of whom he has learned are not mere names ; they 
are clothed in flesh, and warm l)loi)d circulates thri)Ugh their 
veins and arteries. What Emerson says of science is true of 
history, "Something is wanting to science until it has been 
humanized. The table of logarithms is one thing, and its vital 
play in botany, music, optics, and architecture, another." So 
these names of history must l)e changed into real personages in 
the mind of the pupil, before they become examples and imper- 
atives in his life. Mencius says, " A sage is the instructor of a 
hundred ages. " When we get this realistic knowledge of the 
Avise and the noble, we ourselves are made wiser and noltler. 

This, then, is the Biograjihical method, and its successful use 
depends almost entirely upon the teacher. He. must, of course, 
know his suljject as an organized whole, as well as know it in 
its parts ; he must l:)e willing to devote much time to prepara- 
tion ; he must be altle to produce vivid impressions ; and he 
must not lose his grasp upon the general scheme, and, in 
consequence, mutilate and weaken the i)arts by meaningless 
digressions. 

43. A Specimen Liesson in a German Scliool. — The 

following account of a lesson illustrating the Biographical 
method is taken from Dr. Klemm. 

(1 ) A biographical narrative was given by the teacher, who spoke in 
very simple and appropriate language, but feelingly, with the glow of 
enthusiasm and the chest tone of conviction. He made each pupil 
identify himself with the hero of the story. The map was frequently 
used or referred to. Bits of poetry taken from the reader were inter- 
woven, and circumstances of our time, as well as persons of very recent 
history, were mentioned at the proper occasjon. The attention was 
breatliless. 



48 PEDAGOGICS OF HISTORY. 

(2) The story was then repeated by pnpils, who were now and then 
interrupted by leading questions. The answers were again usea to 
develop new thoughts not brought out by the first narration. Particu- 
larly was it cause and effect, and the moral value of certain historical 
actions which claimed the attention of the teacher. To me it was very 
instructive to see these children search for analogous cases in human life 
as they knew it. 

(3) The pupils were led to search in their stores of historical knowl- 
edge for analogous cases, or cases of decided contrast. This gave me an 
insight into the extent of their knowledge. When, for instance, certain 
civil virtues were spoken of, they mentioned cases that revealed a very 
laudable familiarity with history. But all their knowledge had been 
grouped around a number of centers — that is, great men. That is to say, 
their knowledge had been gained through biographies. 

(4) The pupils were told to write, in connected narration, what they 
had just learned. This proved a fertile composition exercise, because 
the j)upils had something to write about— a thing that is not quite so 
frequent in schools as seems desirable. 

44. Unclerlying" Principles of tlie ILesson. — Dr. 

Klemni goes on to tell of the teacher's explanation to him of 
the principles that should characterize the method. 

The aim should be "to nourish and strengthen all the powers of the 
soul, interest, emotion, and volition." "The pupil's intellect is increased 
bj^ making him familiar with historical deeds, by affording comparisons 
and making distiiictions, by causing keen judgment and correct con- 
clusions." "The pupil's heart is influenced by instruction in history, 
because many great, sublime, noble, and beautiful actions and motives 
are presented, which cause pleasure, and lead to imitation, uncon- 
sciously to the pupil." "The pupil's will power is greatly stimulated by 
instruction in historj^, because he is warned and inspired by truth, right, 
and duty, to love his country and his fellowmen." 

45. Metliocls of Securing: Tliese Ends. — The teacher 
enunciates to Dr. Klemm the conditions upon which depends 
the securement of these ends, as follows : 

(1) That the teacher of history be a person whose heart is full of 
patriotism, and beats strongly for truth, right, and duty. 

(2) That the instruction be not a mere recital of names and dates, of 
battles and acquisitions of land, nor dissertations upon abstract ideas and 
generalities, but above all, a simple narration of deeds and events, and a 
glowing description of persons and circumstances. 

(3) That the teacher connect the new historical knowledge with 
circumstances and conditions, such as are either known to the pupils, or 
are near enough at hand to be drawn into the discussion. 



PEDAG(JGIC8 OF HISTORY. 49 



(4) That the pupil should not be allowed to remain receptive, but 
must be induced to be active in this stud\'. 

(5) That the teacher should induce his pupils to compare siuiilar and 
dissimilar actions and persons, and thereby induce judgment upon cause 
and effect fi'om a moral or an ethical standpoint, so that not merely the 
intellect be developed, but also the heart and the will. 

(6) That instruction in history be brought into organic connection 
with the study of language ; for this reason, reading is to be brought in 
as an assistant. Eecitatiijns of patriotic poems and ballads can be w oven 
in profitably, and that geography must aid history is self-evident. 

4(3. Remarks upon the Foi*e§:oing" Illustrative 
Lesson. — The writer feels that it is unnecessary to apologize 
for illustrating at length so excellent a plan as is realized in 
the Biographical method of !)eginning history. Tliat the 
method is excellent is demonstrated by its long use in the Ger- 
man elementary schools. That it has not proved so valual)le in 
this country is owing, not to faults in the method itself, ])Ut to 
a lack of ability on the part of the teacher to use it skilfully and 
effectively. Educators know that if children have the good 
fortune to fall into the hands of able teachers, they themselves, 
should they subsecjuently liecome teachers, will rememl)er and 
strive to imitate in matter, manner, and method, their former 
teachers. And it is prol)ably true that no person ever became 
a great teacher, if he himself had been poorly taught. Man is 
only an improved type of the ape in this imitative instinct. 
Many an excellent plan of i)roeedure in teaching has been 
abandoned for no l)etter reason than that the teacher lacked the 
genius to devise original n)ethods of using it, and had no illus- 
trative prototype. In teaching, as in other things, excellence is 
attained by the slow processes of evolution, and final success 
is hypothecated upon inntimerable antecedent failures. 

47. The Biog-raphical Method as Advocated by 
Herbart and Others. — So marked have lieen the good results 
obtained in the German schools by this method, that many 
pedagogists, at whose head are Herbart and Ziller, have advo- 
cated its introduction at the beginning of the child's school life. 
The}' have outlined the course to be piu'sued in carrying out 
their theories. During the first year, certain of the tales of the 
Grimm Brothers are told over and over again 1)V the teacher. 



50 PEDAGOGICS OF HISTORY. 

and are finally drawn from the children as voluntary oral 
narrative, or by means of suggestive questions. These become 
the material for lessons in morals, religion, general informa- 
tion, object lessons, language lessons, etc. The delightful stories 
of Hans Christian Anderson, being slightly more realistic, can 
be similary used. 

The second year's work consists of the story of Robinson 
Crusoe. This is broken up into hviei episodes, each complete 
in itself, and when, toward the close of the year, they are united, 
they form a connected whole. 

After this come the Sagas of the Scandinavian mythology, 
stories of Odin, Thor, Loki, Balder, the A''alk3U'ies, and of many 
others of the rugged l^ut poetically beautiful characters that 
figure in the myths of the icy North. From these, too, are 
drawn lessons of poetic and moral beauty, and they serve to 
furnish concrete images for the imaginative instinct found in 
every child. 

Then the stories of the Old Testament are utilized, followed 
by tales from the Odyssey and the Iliad, Shakespeare, Livy, 
Herodotus, Xenophon, Hesiod, ^Eschylus, and others. So the 
work goes on to the time at which history proper is taken up 
in the regular German course, when the pupil is nine or ten 
years of age. 

48. Some Reasons for Beginning- History Early. — It 

is conceded among educators that the chief need with little 
children is language. In consequence of this fact, studied and 
systematic work has been instituted to provide for this want. 
The most conspicuous effort in this direction is the kindergarten, 
which has been much decried and much lauded. The central 
requirement of kindergarten work is that it shall deal with 
concrete objects, a knowledge of which reaches the mind princi- 
pally through the two senses of sight and feeling. Almost 
nothing is done for the other senses. The child is expected to 
get, in his own environment, all the sensations he requires of 
smell, taste, and hearing. Of the words that he learns, the 
greater part are nouns and adjectives. The various actions and 
motions expressed by verbs he learns by observation, mostly 



PEDAGOGICS OF HISTORY. 51 



el!?ewhere than in the kindergarten. Adverbs he learns with 
verbs, and the various relation words and the pronouns come but 
slowly. Xow the teacher that tells him a fairy story, or a tale 
from mythology, must reach his mind without placing in his 
hands sensible objects of any kind. Verl^s, adverbs,- pronouns, 
relation words, all easy to be understood, and all illustrated by 
what the child sees every day, must be so used that, by sheer 
forcH of repetition and context, he may gradually get exact 
notions of their meanings, and learn to use them himself. In 
this early work, the value of a teacher is measured by his skill in 
story telling— l)y his ability to transfer to ideal uses words 
usually applied to sensible objects, by his vivacity, the music of 
his voice, and his earnestness. Obviously, teaching of this kind 
supplements the work among the concrete in the kindergarten, 
and rapidly supplies a vocalnilarv suitable to the narrow sphere 
of a child. If rightly done, it is an excellent training in the use 
of words in ideal or mental senses. 

Another imperative requirement in the education of a young 
child is the formation in his mind of definite centers of interest 
that may, by subsequent accumulations, be enlarged and rendered 
more comprehensive and more definitely significant. There is 
a certain attractive affinity l^etween such centers in memory and 
thought and the related ideas that reach the child later. " The 
child must have ideas before he can compare and classify them," 
say our educators. What better way to get ideas than this ? 

^Mien we remember that, of the words with which we are 
familiar, only a very small percentage was learned from the 
dictionary, and that the rest were gradually accumulated by 
reading and conversation alone, it will be obvious that the story 
telling method is a correct natural method. It is a method that 
begins in the nursery and endures as long as we live. Some one 
says of the Biogra})hical method that it matters but little how 
early it is begun, provided only that it is begun rightly. 

Many other reasons for this early work might be given, but 
enough has been said on the subject to show that it would be 
difficult to begin too soon to enrich the vocaljularies of our 
children, to awaken and develop the historic sense, and to form 
in their minds definite centers of historical interest. 



52 PEDAGOGICS OF HISTORY. 

49. The Comparative Metliod. — Mr. Herbert B. Adams, 
one of our most eminent teachers of history, in describing this 
method, employs the word coinjxcmtire in two senses. In its 
first use, he makes it signify- a comparison of similar phases of 
the history of different nations at the same or different times. 
A brief quotation from this author will illustrate : 

''It would be a fine thing for American students, if, in studying 
special topics in the history of their own country, they would occasion- 
ally compare the phases of historic truth here discovered with similar 
phases discovered elsewhere ; if, for example, the colonial beginnings 
of North America should be compared with Aryan migrations westward 
into Greece and Italy, or again with the colonial systems of Greece and 
of the Roman Empire, or of the Englisli Empire today, which is con- 
tinuing in South Africa and Australia and in Manitoba, the same old 
spirit of enterprise which colonized the Atlantic seaboard of North 
America. It would interest young minds to have parallels drawn 
between English colonies, Grecian commonwealths, Roman provinces, 
the United Cantons of Switzerland, and the United States of Holland. 
To be sure, these various topics w'ould require considerable study on the 
part of teacher and pupil, but the fathers of the American Constitution, 
Madison, Hamilton, and others, went over such ground in preparing the 
platform of our present federal government." 

It is this method that Plutarch follows in his delightful 
"parallels." In all the range of biographical literature, there 
is nothing quite so fascinating as these parallels, and while this 
fact is due in large measure to the style in which they are 
written, in still larger measure it is owing to the pleasure we 
find in the comparison of similar characters, in the detection of 
differences and resemblances. This method is applicable in 
the study of innumerable phases of the history of nations, as, 
for example, the comparison of our own Civil A^'ar with the 
French Revolution or with the Revolution in England against 
the Stuarts under Cromwell ; the invasion of Greece by 
Xerxes, and the expedition of Alexander ; the invasion of 
Russia by Napoleon and the March of the Ten Thousand under 
Xenophon ; the commercial and naval rivalry between Rome 
and Carthage, and the similar rivalry between England and 
Continental Europe. The well informed and thoughtful teacher 
of history will have no difficulty in finding examples to illus- 
trate almost any episode in the history of his country. 



PEDAGOGICS OF HISTORY. 53 

The second sense in which Professor Adams uses the term 
roiiipiiratire will l)est be understood from the following quotation : 

" But my special plea is for the application of the comparative 
niethdd to the use of historical literature. Students should learn to 
view history in different lights and from various standpoints. Instead 
of relying passively upon the iji--<<' 'licit of the schoolmaster, or of the 
school book, or of some one historian, pupils should learn to judge for 
themselves by comparing evidence. (_)f course, some discretii:)n should 
be exercised by the teacher in the case of young pupils; but even 
childi'en are attracted by different versions of the same tale or legend, 
and catch at new points of interest with all the eagei'ness of original 
investigators. The scattered elements of fact or tradition should be 
brought together as children piece together the scattered blocks of a 
map. The criterion of all truth, as well as of all art, is fiini'ss. Com- 
parison of different accounts of the same historic event would no more 
injure boys and girls than would a comparative study of tlie four 
gospels. On the contrary, such comparisons strengthen the judgment, 
and give it greater independence and stability. In teaching liistorv, 
altogether too much stress has been laid, in many of our schools, upon 
mere forms of verbal expression in the textbook, as though historic 
truth consists in the repetition of what some author has said. It would 
be far better for the student to read the same story in several different 
forms, and then to give his own version. The latter process would be 
an independent historical view based upon a variety of evidence. The 
memorizing of "words, words," prevents the assimilation of facts, and 
clogs the mental process of reflection and private judgment." 

50. Remarks on the Comparative Metliotl. — It will 
be seen from the foregoing quotations that Professor Adams 
employs the term comparatirc in two widely different meanings ; 
one meaning denotes ii comparison f)f analogous events, the 
other a conq^arison of different accounts of the same event. In 
the first, the trustworthiness of the historic records is assumed 
wherever they may Ite found ; in the second, the truth or the 
completeness of the various accounts must be thought of as onl}^ 
approximate — the records are to l)e taken together and averaged. 
Each requires judgment and skill in collating resemlilances and 
differences, l^ut the former exercises the faculty of a higher and 
more mature phase of the faculty of comparison than does the 
latter, and l:»oth involve much study and reflection on the 
part of the pu})ils and the teacher. Under proper conditions of 
age and njaturity of the pU2:)ils, of industry, intelligence, and 



54 PEDAGOGICS OF HISTORY. 

scholarship on the part of the teacher, and of Hbrar}^ facihties, 
this method would undoubtedly be very effective. But, unfortu- 
nately, these conditions of success are generally wanting, and 
this is especially the case in our lower grades of schools. Only 
to a ver}^ limited extent would this plan of history work be 
practicable in our country schools, and the same would be 
largely the case in the graded schools of our towns and cities. 
However, if the teacher himself is in possession of wide and 
accurate historic scholarship, and at the same time has access to 
the necessar}^ historicnl authorities, both phases of the method 
may be advantageously resorted to, both in country and in city 
schools. By reading different accounts of the same event to 
his pupils, emphasizing similarities and differences, by causing 
among them discussions that he directs and summarizes, and 
by many other means, the teacher may utilize, in a large 
measure, the Comparative method. 

51. Otlier Metliods. — There are several other plans of 
teaching history that have been designated by distinguishing 
names. These, however, are in use only in the higher institu- 
tions of learning in this and other countries, and are, therefore, 
of little practical value to the ordinary teacher of histor3^ " But 
while they may not he of any value as working methods, to the 
students of this Paper, they shall be briefly explained below^ ; 
for teachers may perhaps find in them guiding suggestions for 
their own study of history, and for the work of their pupils in 
other subjects. 

I. The Cooperative Method. — This is a method not only of 
studying history, but of writing it. Leopold von Ranke, perhaps 
the greatest of historians, who did more than any one else to 
create, develop, and organize the historical methods of Germany, 
is the father of the Cooperative method. 

"The most notable example of the cooperative method in universal 
history," says Professor Adams, "is the new monographic historj^ of 
the world, edited by Pi-ofessor Wilhelm Oncken, but composed by the 
eminent specialists in Germany. One man writes the history of Egypt 
in the light of modern research ; another that of Persia ; a third reviews 
the historj' of Greece, giving the latest results of Grecian archeological 
investigations ; others revise Koman history and the early history of 
Germanic peoples." 



PEDAGOGICS OF HISTORY. 



The foregoing extract will sufficiently illustrate what is 
involved in this method. In every department of human 
activity the division of labor has been introduced so generally 
that, in the ordinary industries, it is now difficult to find a 
"trade" that one may learn in its entirety. Manufacturers 
find that, in the construction of a whole composed of many 
parts, labor is economized and the output increased In' assigning 
the various parts to as many difl'erent individuals. Thus, one 
man ujakes, or partially makes, a certain wheel in a watch, 
another works upon a different wheel, and still another turns, 
engraves, or decorates the case. In this division of labor, 
aptitudes of different workers determine what each shall do. 

The same method has 1)een carried into literary work. The 
making of a great dictionary is a good illustration. One 
specialist is eminent in physical science ; to him is assigned 
the work of defining the terms l)elonging to that department. 
The most eminent authority obtainable for each department 
w'rites the definitions pertaining to his special subject. The 
whole is a great cooperative work. 

More than twenty-five years ago, the publishing house of 
D. Appleton c^" Co. began to issue, under the editorshi}) of 
Professor Youmans, a list of popular science treatises called the 
"International Scientific Series."' Each volume covered some 
special topic, and was written Ijy the man supposed to l»e, as 
compared with all others, the most competent in the world to 
treat that particular sul)ject. Professor Tyndall wrote the first 
volume, the title of which is "The Forms of Water." Other 
authors just as eminent followed, until this series, a perfect 
illustration of the Cooperative method, has grown into a 
collection of incomparal)le value. To know thoroughly the 
contents of all these works, would lie an admirable general 
education in science for any man. 

II. The Seminary Method. — The Seminary method is only a 
continuation of the German plan of teaching history. It is 
distinguished l)_y original research by the students, of Avhom a 
comparatively small numljer work together ; by the preparation 
of original theses as the result of such investigations ; by the 
reading and criticism of these theses by students and teachers. 



56 PEDAGOGICS OF HISTORY. 

and by the restriction within narrow Hmits of the areas investi- 
gated at any one time. 

"The Seminary method of modern universities is merely the develop- 
ment of the old scholastic method of advancing philosophical inquiry 
by the defense of original theses. The Seminary is still a training 
school [in Germany] for doctors of philosophy ; but it has evolved from 
a nursery of dogma into a laboratory of scientific truth." — H. B. Adams. 

To Leopold von Ranke, who died in 1886, at the age of 
91 years, belongs the honor of having transformed the Seminars 
of Germany from religious institutions into scientitic labora- 
tories. In some of our universities this method is used in con- 
nection with others, but it is obviously impracticable in schools 
of lower grade. It is intended solely for such students as desire 
to make a specialty of history. 

52. Tlie Eclectic Metliod. — "All roads lead to Rome," 
says the proverb ; so, all methods must be known and used by 
the teacher, if he would attain to the highest success in his 
profession. Better than any one method is a combination of 
all methods, provided that this combination is determined by 
an intelligent appreciation of the requirements of each particu- 
lar situation. No teacher ever became great in his profession by 
pursuing undeviatingly a single plan of procedure. Napoleon's 
successes were owing, not to superior forces, but to superior 
genius in adapting means to ends ; in bringing to bear, in a 
particular emergency, just the agencies required to accomplish 
his purposes. His plans and military processes were eclectic — 
determined by circumstances ; the methods of his enemies were 
in accordance with the established principles of military science. 
They could not deviate from the beaten track — they were ham- 
pered by the rules learned from their teachers. 

The conditions of success for a teacher are exactly similar. 
Means and methods must be various, suited, in each case, to 
requirements. Any single plan long pursued becomes monoto- 
nous and ineffective. The Eclectic method aims at variety, 
freshness, and the sustainment of interest. It is a method made 
up of elements selected from all sources, and determined by 
existing circumstances. More than any other, it requires in the 
teacher judgment, and an exact understanding of his pupils and 



PEDAGOGICS OF HISTORY. 57 

of the subject that he is teaching. Properh' used, it is the best of 
all methods, for it takes into account, in each case, the needed 
elements of success, and these are always unique — always pecul- 
iar. At one time, he lectures ; at another, he questions ; now 
he tells a story in illustration of some j^oint ; again, he resorts to 
research by the pupil ; sometimes a historical poem or ballad 
is read ; sometimes the pupil i^repares a thesis. Here is a 
lesson furnishing instruction in ethics — in moral beauty ; here, 
one dealing with political economy and good citizenship. No 
opportunity of utilizing side issues is lost, but thoughtfulh^ 
wisely, discriminatingly, the teacher employs every means of 
uniting the multitude of lessons and principles and inferences 
into a coherent, syuTmetrical, logical whole. 

53. Conditions of Success. — But this is a method 
requiring in the teacher rare powers of management and of 
organization, as well as comprehensive and thorough acquaint- 
ance with his subject. It is, moreover, a method that induces 
rapid growth, not only in the pupil, but in the teacher himself. 
Each year reveals some imperfection in the devices and processes 
of the last year's work. It is, in short, a method of growth, of 
evolution, and in its best phase, it is the climax and perfection 
of all methods. Its employment induces and develops in the 
teacher that best of all attributes, originality ; and the example 
to tbe pupil of an intelligent use of appropriate means will 
become an influence in all his after life. 

One special error of procedure is likely to attend the use of 
the Eclectic method ; indeed, it is to be guarded against with 
every method. It is the proba1)ility of obscuring the general 
plan by side issues. Alwavs, when the logical connection is 
broken by an illustrative aside, by an application of some 
principle to a particular case, or by an ethical or economic 
deduction, the main thread should be formally and distinctly 
resumed. At such points, it is well for the teacher to require 
from the pupils a nsumc of the chapter or lesson up to the 
point where the break occurred, for it must not be forgotten 
that a coherent logical whole is the matter important aljove all 
others. Evervthing else should he made secondarv to this, and 



58 PEDAGOGICS OF HISTORY. 

when a historical work is finished, it should lie in the mind of 
the class with all the definiteness of a landscape. In the con- 
sideration of fact or application, of illustration or inference, do 
not lose sight of the general scheme. 

54. Observations upon Metliocls. — Whatever method 
or combination of methods may be employed by the teacher of 
history, little will be accomplished unless the pupil gives his 
best powers to the study. The teacher's contribution to the 
work is, in the nature of things, only directive. He may 
superintend the Avork wisely and with comprehensive views, or 
he may not ; but the final outcome depends largely upon what 
the student does for himself. There is a growing notion that if 
we can but have a good teacher, his work will so supplement 
Avhat the child may do, whether that be well done or otherwise, 
that the result will be satisfactory. The goodness of a teacher, 
however, is, in large measure, determined by what he can 
induce the pupil to do for himself. Before comparisons or 
applications can be made, or laws inferred, there must be a basis 
of facts in the mind of the pupil ; and with this working 
material he must be perfectly familiar. This is to be acquired 
by the pupil's own efforts. In this, the teacher's aid avails but 
little. To be a scholar in any proper sense, one must "burn 
the midnight oil." And, contrary to an opinion entertained 
by some and too much encouraged by medical incompetents, 
this mental work expended in study and acquirement is 
undoubtedly good for the mind, and is not hurtful to the 
bodily powers ; for, it is a well known fact that when business 
men, after having been actively engaged for years in the most 
intense activity of body and mind, retire for "rest," the repose 
of the grave quickly follows. 

This use of the memory in accumulating the facts of history 
is especially important and necessary in the earliest school Avork. 
Dr. W. T. Harris, Commissioner of Education, says : 

"The elementary school will always have the character of memory 
work stamped upon it, no matter how much the educational reformers 
may improve its methods. It is not easy to overvalue the work of such 
men as Pestalozzi and Froebel. But the child's mind cannot seize great 
syntheses. He bites off, as it were, only small fragments of truth at best. 



PEDAGOGICS OF HISTORY. 59 

He gets initiated data, and sees cmly feebl\' the vast network of inter- 
relation in the world. This fragmentary, isolated character belongs 
essentially to primary education." 

Referring to the importance of a disciplined and retentive 
nientory, Professor Hinsdale quotes the followinp: from the 
Psychology of Professor James : 

" No one, probably, was ever effective on a voluminons scale witliDUt 
a high degree of this physiological retentiveness. In the practical as in 
the theoretic life, the man whose acquisitions xiicl: is the man who is 
always achieving and advancing ; while his neighbors, spending most of 
their time in relearning what they once knew but have forgotten, simply 
hi;)ld their own. A Charlemagne, a Luther, a Leibnitz, a Walter Scott — 
any example, in short, of your quarto or folio editions of mankind, must 
needs have amazing retentiveness of the purely physiological sort. ^Nlen 
without this retentiveness may excel in the ijnulitii of their work at this 
point or that, but they will never do such mighty sums of it, or be influ- 
ential contemporaneously on such a scale." 

55, SuiiimMi-y. — The Memoriter method, therefore, so far, 
at least, as ac»piirement is concerned, is one of extreme impor- 
tance ill the early stages of history study. The principal thing 
to be guarded against, as has already been explained, is the 
memorizing of lessons in the exact worfh of the author. The 
means of guarding against this have already been mentioned 
and emphasized. The thoagJit expressed is the principal thing, 
and, in arriving at the thought with exactness and precision, 
there should not remain in the text one word whose meaning, 
as there used, is in the slightest degree vague. This is largely a 
work to be looked after by the teacher. The habit of resting 
content with nothing tliat is indefinite or uncertain, of following 
everything to its last analysis, is not easily formed, and the 
teacher that establishes and confirms such a mental habit in his 
pupils has done much for their later educational growth. In 
the formation of such a habit, it must he remembered that the 
relation between words and the thoughts they are intended 
to express is very uncertain — scarcely anytliing is more so. 
There are very few writers that so choose their words as to say 
exactly what they mean, and it is from the context and from our 
own knowledge of tlie subject, that exact meanings must often be 
gathered. It is, therefore, a part of the teacher's work to clear 



60 PEDAGOGICS OF HISTORY. 

away ambiguities that come from the careless and indiscrim- 
inating use of Avords. The same may be said of arrangement. 
The teacher will often l)e required to adjust parts that are out 
of proper logical or chronological relation. 



RELATION or HISTORY TO OTHER 
SUBJECTS. 



PRELIMITs^ARY COIS^SIDEIIATIOXS. 

56. Vastness of the Subject of History. — In the early 
years of the 23resent century, it was possible for a student to 
become tolerably familiar with almost the entire field of ordinary 
human learning, at least so far as it had been written in our 
own language. Comparatively little had been done in the 
physical sciences and in mathematics. Most of the scholarship 
of the world was engaged in endless disputes about metaphysics, 
theolog3% and other nebulous subjects. It is true that some 
great historical work had been done, but in all of it, the real, 
the inner life of the people, was almost completely ignored. 
Historical investigations were not minute and scientific, as they 
are now. Kings and courts, and political intrigues, and battles, 
and military leaders absorbed the attention of historians, to the 
exclusion of what is noAv regarded as history. Modern methods 
of investigation have since been introduced in every quarter, 
and the domain of all the inductive sciences has been exi^anded 
to such an extent that no person can hope to master completely, 
in our short lifetime, any one sul^ject, even if he neglects every 
other. 

In a recent conversation with, perhaps, one of the greatest of 
living organic chemists, he said to the writer that a perfect 
knowledge of organic chemistr}^ would involve the necessity of 
remembering at least eight million formulas, processes, com- 
bining proportions, affinities, reactions, incompatibles, etc. Dis- 
cussing the adjustments necessitated in educational methods 
by the division of labor in scientific investigations, and by the 
development of specialties, he said that education in the early 



PEDAGOGICS OF HISTORY. 61 

future Avill he measured l)y farility in eonsultinti' and under- 
standing l)Ouks of reference. H()\vever this may be, it is certain 
tliat the men that make their mark most indelibly on the scroll 
of tlie world's |)r(\iiress — the men wliose success in life is the 
greatest for themselves and the most valual)le to the world — are 
the specialists. These are the men that learn to do some 
particular thing better than any one else can do it. Such men 
compel those that seek the l»est of its kind to come to them. 
They are not obliged to seek a market for their products. 
Alvan Clark might have removed to the other side of the earth, 
but orders for the largest and best lenses that are made would 
have followed him, and he could have fixed his own price. 
Stevenson took i-efuge in far Samoa, l)Ut he could not get away 
from the demand for finished and masterly literary work. 
With respect to such men as Dickens, Gladstone, Pasteur, 
Tyndall, Bell, Tesla, Edison, the important thing is that they 
be alive. Where they may ha})pen to be is of slight impor- 
tance. The world will find them with its cry for help. 

This necessity fin* devoting one's l>est powers to some specialty 
is applicable also to the sul)ject of history. He that Avishes to 
become great in understanding, writing, or teaching history 
must make it a life work. He must, moreover, love his work. 
And, even if one does not mean to devote his attention to 
history exclusively, he must, to teach it well, be a persistent 
student of the subject. 

57. Division of Labor in Teaeliing-. — The assignment 
to diflferent persons of the several parts of a task consisting of 
many elements and processes is not confined to science, com- 
merce, and the various industries. Our liest schools are doing 
the same thing. And this is true not only of our colleges with 
their professors for special subjects, but also of many of our 
public schools. The best teacher of mathematics teaches 
mathematics, and the same arrangement is made with respect 
to other subjects. And this is a usage that is growing and has 
come to stay. It is reaching farther and farther down along the 
grades in our system of education. When our population 
becomes denser the graded svstem will be introduced even into 



62 PEDAGOGICS OF HISTORY. 

our counti\y schools, and we shall have difTerent teachers in 
language, in reading, in writing, in geography, and in history. 
Even the little folks of the kindergarten will look to one teacher 
for their knowledge of numbers, to another for manual devices 
and physical expertness, and to still another for language train- 
ing. No machinist can make ec|ually well the various parts of 
a locomotive ; neither can a teacher secure ecjually good results 
in every school study. 

The extension of the division of labor to teaching is some- 
thing to be wished for and encouraged. Many of our cities 
and towns have introduced it, and, wherever this has been 
done, its great advantage has been demonstrated. Should the 
introduction of the division of lal)or in the Avork of education 
become general, it will necessitate the training of teachers in 
special subjects ; and, although a generous all-sideclness of 
culture in a teacher will still be required, the one subject for 
which he has the greatest liking and aptitude will l)e emphasized 
in his preparatory training. 

58. OlDJections to Sj)ecializatioii in Mental and 
Pliyslcal Ti'aining-. — Nowhere in the Avorld has devotion to 
single subjects of study been more general than in German}^ 
Critics of German culture have made the point that such special 
training in one subject has the effect of dwarfing in every other. 
They allege that the Germans do not have a single complete 
history of their own country — only an unorganized collection of 
brilliant treatises, each of which covers a particular period. 
This is doubtless true, but is it something to be deprecated ? It 
may be said, in answer, that if one desires the best possible 
treatment of almost any sul:)ject, he must go for it to the 
Germans. The l^est cyclopedias, the most accurate maps, 
the most profound mathematical investigations, the ablest works 
on logic and metaphysics, the highest Greek and Latin scholar- 
ship, even the most excellent English grannnar, and the most 
appreciative and scholarly edition of Shakespeare — all these are 
German. And after all is said, is it not perfection in details 
rather than imperfect general schemes that the world most 
needs ? If a great bridge is to be built, do we not seek out the 



PEDAGOGICS OF HISTORY. 63 

greatest engineer available ? He does not, perhaps, know Greek 
or Sanskrit, he is not an athlete or a chemist, he is nn acquainted 
with Avhist, and golf, and baseltall ; Imt what of that? He is 
great as an engineer, and that is the important matter. The 
great mihtary leader cannot l)e at the same time equally great 
as the leader of an orchestra ; Xewton cannot do the work of 
Mozart, nor can Michael Angelo conduct the investigations of 
Faraday, Darwin, or Pasteur. "Jack of all trades, but master 
of none " is a more serious criticism than that urged against the 
specialization of the Germans. The world will see no more 
masters of universal learning — no more Scaligers or Admirable 
Crichtons. It needs rather men eminent in specialties. More- 
over, the most effective training is in the direction of inherited 
tendency. It was vastly easier to make of Patti a great singer 
and of Rosa Bonheur a great painter, than it would have been 
to make of the former even an ordinary painter and of the 
latter a mediocre singer. Find out what your l)oy was l)orn 
for, and help him to Ijecome eminent if he can. German 
specializatiitn is the only development that is perfectly rational 
and })erfectly natural. 



C()RREI.ATIONS OF IIISTOHY. 

51). Interrelation of Subjects of Study. — While, from 
the foregoing considerations, it is clear that the greatest 
eminence and usefulness are attainaljle only by devotion to one 
sul)iect, it is etpiallv clear that no subject is entirely isolated 
from every other. Perfection in one thing implies a certain 
degree of acquaintance with many related matters. The great 
sculy)t<:)r must know anatomy, human and comparative ; the 
eminent engineer must be acquainted with graphic art, the 
strength of materials, the laws of momentum, the effects pro- 
duced by changes of temperature, and the general properties of 
matter. Similarly, the subject of history has its related 
subjects. These are manv, and each is extensive enough to 
constitute a life work for the greatest intellect. The student or 
teacher of history, therefore, cannot know all these thoroughly. 
The field is too wide for the lirief span of life. He may, 



64 PEDAGOGICS OF HISTORY. 

however, understand their general principles and the nature of 
their connection with his specialt}-. Before entering upon a 
consideration of the subjects with which histor}^ is correlated, it 
is necessary to understand the meaning of correlation as used in 
educational science. 

60. Meaning" of tlie Term Correlafiou. — The word 
correlation has onl}^ very recently been introduced into peda- 
gogical writings. The consequence is that its precise significa- 
tion, when so used, has not yet been settled. The term, as 
generally used, may be defined as the act of bringing into 
mutual or reciprocal connection, action, or correspondence, two 
or more persons or things, or it is the state of their being in such 
relation. Applied to the subject matter of education, there is 
much diversity of meaning attached to the term. By some it 
is interpreted to mean that all subjects of study are more or less 
closely related to one another ; so. that an adequate knowledge 
of any one implies and necessitates an equal or a partial knowl- 
edge of every other. To illustrate, no one can be fully acquainted 
with the subject of music, if he is ignorant of acoustics and of 
the mathematical relations of the different wave lengths in the 
propagation of sound through air ; for upon these is dependent 
the entire theory of harmony and discord. 

61. Committee of Fifteen. — Others, again, insist that, 
because such relations exist among subjects of study, none of 
them should be taught apart from the rest, but all should be 
taught in conjunction. The extreme advocates of this view 
insist that some literar}^ work should l^e taken as a sort of text 
from which the study of all school subjects should proceed with 
equal step. In the report of the Committee of Fifteen, and in 
the discussion that followed, reference is made to the story of 
Robinson Crusoe as such a center, from which every needful 
study may he evolved and fully taught. The following quota- 
tions from the report of that committee will be instructive : 

" Your committee would mention another sense in which the expres- 
sion "correlation of studies " is sometimes used. It is held by advocates 
of an artificial center of the course of study. They use, for example, 
DeFoe's 'Robinson Crusoe' for a reading exercise, and connect with it 
the lessons in geography and arithmetic. It had been pointed out bj^ 



PEDAGOGICS OF HISTORY. 65 

critics of tills metliod tliat tliere is always clanger of covering up the 
literary features of the reading matter under accessories of mathematics 
and natural science. If the material for other branches is to be sought 
for in connection with the literary exercise, it will distract the attention 
from the poetic unity. On the other hand, arithmetic and geogi'aphy 
cannot be unfolded freely and comprehensively if they are to wait for 
the opportunities afforded in a poem or a novel, for their development. 
A correlation of this kind * * * * is a shallow and uninteresting kind 
of correlation, that reminds one of the system of mnemonics, or artificial 
memory, which neglects the association of facts and events with their 
causes and the history of their evolution, and looks for unessential 
quips, puns, or accidental suggestions with a view to strengthening the 
memory. The effect of this is to weaken the power of systematic think- 
ing which deals with essential relations, and to substitute for it a 
chaotic memory that ties things together through false and seeming 
relations, not of the things and events, but of the words that denote 
them. 

"The correlation of geography, and arithmetic, and history, in and 
through the unity of a work of fiction, is at best an artificial correlation, 
which will stand in the way of the true objective relation. It is a 
temporary scaffolding made for school purposes." 

Farther on tlie report contains the following : 

"The story of Robinson Crusoe has intense interest to the child as a 
lesson in sociology, showing hini the helplessness of isolated man and 
the reinforeement that comes to him through society. It shows the 
importance of the division of labor. ****** Consequently, the 
history of Robinson Crusoe is not a proper center for a year's study in 
school. It omits cities, governments, the world commerce, the inter- 
national process, the chui-ch, the newspaper and book from view, and 
they are not even reflected in it." 

G2. Remarks upon tlie Foregoing Quotations. — The 

writer believes that the absurdity and iiselessness of the method 
of correlation described and criticised in the foregoing quota- 
tions will l)e sufficiently obvious to every thoughtful teacher. 
It appears to be necessary, however, that some additional com- 
ments should be submitted. 

In the first place, then, there seems to be little question that 
every subject of stirdy should be taught as a distinct entity — 
as isolated and complete in itself — except in so far as matters 
belonging to other subjects are used to illustrate and emphasize 
its principles. These illustrations should, in general, bear a rela- 
tion to the main subject similar to that in geometry between a 



66 PEDAGOGICS OF HISTORY. 

clenionstrated proposition and a corollary to it. These correla- 
tion extremists have a notion that many branches can be suc- 
cessfully studied together, and that the law of association is 
thus utilized in the best possible manner. As well might one 
attempt to learn a half dozen trades at the same time. It is 
not meant that, when we study one subject, its relations to 
others must be carefully excluded from consideration ; it is 
intended only that side issues must not be permitted to cloud, 
and so to divert attention from the main sul:)ject as to destroy 
its unity. 

And just here the writer may be permitted to remark that 
teachers especially should endeavor to see matters in proper 
proportion and with due reference to their relative importance. 
The world is full of enthusiasts on every subject, of people that 
have discovered the "much sought kalon.''^ These people 
imagine that they can tell us how to do perfectly what the 
world has hitherto been able to do only indifferently well. 
They knoAv an infal]il:ile remed}' for every disease, and how to 
perfect every process or method. To them, everything that is, 
is cankered, and the world has l)een waiting and yearning for 
their arrival to set things right. There is something contagious 
about the enthusiasm of these evangelists of "fads," and 
teachers should not permit themselves to be deluded by trivial 
matters that have been exaggerated out of all proportion to 
other things. The teacher of music comes to imagine that, in 
our schools, his specialty is the main thing — that children are 
created principally in order that they may sing. Everything 
else should l)e subordinated to music. The man employed to 
supervise drawing, the teacher of physical training, of sewing, 
of cooking, of manual training, the instructors, in short, in the 
various other "educational fringes," as some one calls them, 
all labor under a similar hallucination. Their zeal in urging 
the claims of their several specialties has resulted in crowding 
into the curriculum of the schools many matters of slight educa- 
tional value, to the neglect or exclusion of others that are really 
essential. The}^ smile in a commiserating way when an}^ 
teacher or educator ventures to protest. "Poor fellow, he is 
l^ehind the times ; he forgets that the world is progressing in 



PEDAGOGICS OF HISTORY. 67 



educational science, even tliough lie himself makes no advance." 
He has to bear the odium of lieing regarded as an apostle of 
the "three R's." The fact is that all these matters have 
educational value, Init relatively to many others, their value is 
very slight, and not overshadowing, as their advocates actually 
believe. These sul)jects are like the cjuantities known in 
mathematics as infinitesimals, which denote real Cjuantity indeed, 
but which, in comparison with finite quantity, may Ite regarded 
as zero and dropped out of consideration. 

But this tendency to exaggerate the importance of the subject 
that one knows best, and can teach ),)est, is general. The 
teacher that can teach languages best imagines that his specialty 
is of paramount value, and so on for the others. It would l)e 
difficult to overstate the importance of the teacher's liaving 
definite and correct views of comparative educational values. 
Having such views, he will know what amount of time and 
effort should be given to each l^ranch, and he will }n-eserve a 
wise conservatism with respect to the ne\\' matters that are 
constantly lieing urged for a })lace in the course of study. 

63. Correlation of History Avitli Geograpliy. — As 

has been stated, it is not meant that correlated subjects are to 
be taught together and finished at the same time. It is 
intended only that certain facts belonging to one subject have 
an illustrative l^earing upon another, and serve to emphasize 
it, and give broader and more significant views concerning it. 
These facts aid in discovering general laws. This is especially 
the case with physical and political geography as aids in the 
study of history. The settlement of countries, the development 
of colonies, the direction and rapidit}' of this development, the 
rise and fall of civilizations, the products of the earth and their 
exchange among nations ; all these, and many other factors 
affecting the history of the world, are not fortuitous — the result 
of mere chance. They are determined more by the physical 
features of the earth than by any other influences. River 
basins, mountain systems affecting rainfall and climate, ocean 
currents and their accompanying air currents, elevations of 
surface, and innumeral;)le other facts of physical geography 



68 PEDAGOGICS OF HISTORY. 

have dominated the history of the world to such an extent 
that they must be taken into account in any intelHgible 
view of the progress of the race. All these must be noted 
in teaching history. For example, in the history of America, 
why are the great commercial centers just where they are? 
What gives Chicago, Philadelphia, Duluthj Mobile, New Orleans, 
Charleston, San Francisco, New York, and Boston their impor- 
tance? Upon what do the fertility and climate of the Pacific 
states depend, and why are the states between the Rocky Moun- 
tains and the Sierra Nevada nearly rainless? Upon what does 
their prosperity largely depend ? To what are owing the wealth 
and prosperity of the Mississippi Valley and the Atlantic Slope? 
Why were the original thirteen colonies all included between 
the ocean and the Appalachian System ? What influence are 
railroads, and artificial waterAvays, and irrigation likely to have 
upon United States history ? What advantages do we derive 
from our geographical isolation, and what are the chief argu- 
ments in favor of and against a policy of colonization? Such 
are some of the questions having a bearing upon the study of 
history. Political geography, too, throws a flood of light upon 
history. The thoughtful teacher, with these sidelights, can give 
unity, coherence, and interest to history to an extent that is 
possible in no other way. With their aid, laws and principles 
emerge from confusion and detail, and events take on a new 
and deep significance. History ceases to be a mass of unrelated 
facts and dates, and its determination by the laws of cause and 
effect — of necessary sequence not in time mereh", but in every 
other important relation — becomes apparent. 

64. Correlation of History vv^itli Sociology, and 
Political Science. — The term sociology, as the name of a 
science, is intended to include in its scope "the origin and 
history of human society and social phenomena, the progress 
of civilization, and the laws controlling human intercourse." 
Sociology is not to l^e regarded as mere history, but as a 
philosophical study of society. But considerations relating 
to men as forming society are so closely allied to those rela- 
ting to men as organized politically and forming states, that 



PEDAGOGICS OF HISTORY. 69 

the teaclier of history is not jiroperly e<]uipiteil for his work 
unless he is famihar with tlie data, the inductions, and the 
generahzations of sociology. The remarkal)le work on ''Soci- 
ology," by Herliert Spencer, is indispensal^le to the teacher of 
history. It will bear reading many times. If, besides, the 
teacher has access to the same writer's monumental work on 
"Descriptive Sociology," ;he source from which Mr. Spencer 
largely gathered the mati-rial for his "Sociology," great 
advantage will be derive<l. 

Equally close in correlation witli history is political economy, 
or "that branch of civics that treats of the nature of wealth and 
the laws of its production and distribution, including all the 
causes of prosperity and the reverse. It discusses labor, wages, 
population, capital, money, rent, value, trade, and the relation 
of government to industry and economic conditions." ^^'ith a 
knowledge of the principles and laws of political economy, which 
are themselves derived from human experience as revealed by 
history, the teacher can interpret for iiimself the causes and 
consequences of political action, and make them clear to his 
pujnls. The principles that regulate good and liad })olitical 
action, both in individuals and in nations, are l)Ut dimly seen 
without the guidance of political economy. ^lany excellent 
treatises on this subject are of easy access, but perhaps one of 
the best is Professor Laughlin's abridgment, with notes, of the 
work l)y -lohn Stuart iNIill. 

Under the general science of civics is included the subject of 
international law and usage. This, with reference to cpiestions 
arising in war, is, at this writing, of especial interest in the United 
States. Every teacher should be familiar with tliis subject, 
particularly if he is a teacher of history. President Woolsey's 
work, and that by George B. Davis, .Judge Advocate of the 
United States Army, will l)e f<^und interesting and instructive. 

65. Correlation of History ^vitli Etliics. — Ethics, or 
" the science of human conduct considered with respect to right- 
ness and wrongness," includes in its most general sense, the 
various branches of political and social science, civil, political, 
and international law and jurisprudence. In its api)lication to 



021 731 747 



70 PEDAGOGICS OF HISTORY. 

histoiy, it is intended to consider the moral quality of individual 
and national conduct Avhich, next to cause and effect, is one of 
the most instructive aids in the teaching of history. Without 
it, action is divested of that which makes it distinctlj^ human, 
nations and individuals act without conscience, and history 
engages only the intellect. "Was it right or was it Avrong ? " 
" What should he have done under the circumstances?" "Was 
the punishment in tins case deserved?" "Did the nation act 
in this instance as an individual should have acted?" These, 
and innumerable questions like them should constantly be 
started with thoughtful pupils. Judiciously employed, they 
serve rather to emphasize than to destroy the unity of history. 
The teacher, therefore, should be acquainted with both theoretical 
and practical ethics, and should be skilful in applying its prin- 
ciples to the subject he teaches. Of the sources of information, 
no special mention need be made, for there are innumerable 
treatises readily available. 

GQ, Conclusion. — It is hoped and believed that what the 
writer has herein set forth with much care, and which he has 
gleaned from many years of personal experience in the classroom, 
from many other years in supervising the work done by others, 
and from much reading both of writers of our own land and 
of France and Germany, will prove to be valuable to the 
student and spur him to higher ambition to excel. However 
this may he^ one thing is certain : he that would succeed in the 
difficult and useful profession of teaching must himself earn 
success. He should form a habit of self-criticism, and aim to 
do, year after year, better work than ever before. He should not 
be willing to settle down into routine methods, always doing the 
same things in the same way. Some one has said that poets 
and teachers are made in heaven. Such aphorisms may, many 
of them, be relegated to the limbo of fancy. Shall we not rather 
say with Richelieu ? — 

" In the lexicon of youth, which 
Fate reserves for a bright manhood, there is no such word 
As— f>7/7." 



/■ 



fJARY OF CONGRE 





